Branch  of  the  College  of  Agriculture 
Davis,  California 


'' 


Profitable 
Stock   Raising 

A  Careful  Discussion 

of  the  Problems  Involved  in  the  Develop- 
ment  of  Profitable   Live    Stock    and 
the  Maintenance  of  Soil  Fertility 


By 

CLARENCE  ALBERT  SHAMEL 

Editor  Orange  Judd  Farmer 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 
1911 


IWiVERSITY  OF  CALIFURNI 


Copyright,  1911,  by 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


PRINTED  IN   U.   S.  A, 


PREFACE 

UPON  improved  live  stock  the  prosperity  of  the 
American  farmer  depends.  If  he  so  desires, 
every  American  farmer  can  have  profitable  farm 
animals.  To  fully  explain  the  general  principles 
which  enter  into  profitable  live  stock,  this  little 
book  is  written  and  given  to  the  public.  It  points 
out  the  profitable  types  of  farm  animals,  how  to 
handle  them  so  as  to  get  the  best  returns,  how  to 
select  breeding  stock,  how  to  feed  and  market  all 
classes  of  farm  animals.  Technicalities  have  been 
carefully  avoided  so  that  anyone  can,  if  he  will, 
derive  much  benefit  from  studying  its  pages. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book,  I  have  been  very 
ably  assisted  by  Mr.  Fred  L.  Petty,  assistant  editor 
of  Orange  Judd  Farmer,  to  whom  I  hereby 
acknowledge  my  obligations. 

CLARENCE  A.  SHAMEL. 
Chicago,  October,  1910. 


Table  of  Contents 


Page 
CHAPTER  I. 

THE  LIVE  STOCK  FIELD 4 

Live  stock  most  important  factor  in  farm  life — Its 
production  not  keeping  pace  with  population — 
Statistics  show  supply  short  of  actual  requirements 
— Some  problems  of  profitable  stock  production — 
Valuable  land  demands  more  efficient  animals — 
Rich  land  depends  upon  live  stock — Value  of  ma- 
nure should  receive  greater  appreciation — The  need 
of  more  and  better  animals — Breed  better  and  feed 
better. 

CHAPTER  II. 
PRINCIPLES  OF  PERMANENT  AGRICULTURE 18 

What  permanent  soil  use  requires — China,  India  and 
other  famine-plagued  countries  have  small  live  stock 
supply — The  prosperous  agriculture  of  western  Eu- 
rope coincident  with  large  stock  production — Russia 
has  little  live  stock  and  an  eight-bushel  wheat 
yield — Abandoned  tobacco  lands  of  Maryland  and 
Virginia  were  worn  out  by  the  one-crop  system — 
Some  accepted  principles  of  soil  maintenance — Ro- 
tation alone  not  sufficient — Permanent  agriculture 
established  most  easily  by  means  of  systems  of  live 
stock  farming — Care  of  live  stock  demands  high  use 
of  intelligence — Is  conducive  to  contentment  on 
farm — Makes  for  better  citizenship — Discourages 
itineracy  of  farm  labor — Live  stock  is  the  connect- 
ing link  between  rotation  and  permanent  agricul- 
ture. 

CHAPTER  III. 
AGRICULTURAL  SITUATION  IN  THE  EAST 32 

New  England  and  ,North  Atlantic  states  need  a 
new  agriculture — Movement  of  eastern  migration — 
Abandoned  farms  can  be  acquired  cheaply — Dairy- 
ing, poultry,  sheep  and  swine  should  be  made  the 
basis  of  operations — Unlimited  markets  easily  ac- 
cessible— Dairying  demands  clover,  builds  up  soil, 


VJ  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

Page 

increases  yields — Rational  agriculture  based  upon 
live  stock  means  an  affluent  agricultural  East — 
Haphazard  methods  must  go. 

CHAPTER  IV. 
SOUTHERN  AGRICULTURE  NEEDS  FARM  ANIMALS 41 

The  one-crop  idea  in  the  South — Why  old  fields 
were  abandoned — Present  acre  production  low  in 
many  instances — Readjustment  of  southern  agri- 
culture in  progress — Possibilities  for  live  stock  farm- 
ing in  South — Best  forage  crops  thrive — Cottonseed 
furnishes  unexcelled  concentrates — The  South  should 
produce  meat — Cattle  and  hogs  thrive  and  are  pro- 
lific in  southern  meadows — The  South  should  grow 
its  own  work  stock — Wonderful  land  for  legumes — 
These  will  furnish  forage  and  soil  nitrogen — In- 
creased fertility  will  produce  more  cotton  and 
tobacco  than  before,  and  animal  products  in  addi- 
tion— The  South  buys  too  much  foodstuff,  should 
produce  it  at  home — A  rebirth  of  southern  agricul- 
ture with  live  stock  a  balancing  factor. 

CHAPTER  V. 
LET  THE  WEST  HEED  THE  WARNING 57 

Numerous  evidences  of  waning  productivity — Un- 
intelligent cropping  showing  its  effect  upon  lands 
of  nation's  granary — Lowered  fertility  contempo- 
raneous with  lessened  stock  production — Shipping 
away  vast  quantities  of  corn  and  hay  bad  economy 
— Can  live  stock  pay  on  $200  land? — More  sheep 
and  hogs — More  clover,  alfalfa  and  cowpeas — More 
nitrogen  in  soil — Larger  crops — Plenty  of  feed — 
More  meat  animals  and  more  manure — Restore  the 
humus  and  build  up  the  soil — Corn,  cattle  and 
clovers  the  tripod  supporting  western  farms. 

CHAPTER  VI. 
DOES  LIVE  STOCK  PAY  ? 68 

All  live  stock  is  not  profitable — Four  dairy  cows  to 
do  the  work  of  two  not  profitable — Scrub  stock 
must  go  from  valuable  land — Scrub  dairy  animals 
do  not  pay  board — Inferior  meat  animals  cannot 
utilize  feed  economically — How  to  weed  out  the 
scrubs — Test  the  dairy  stock — Select  breeding  ani- 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS  Vll 

Page 

mals  intelligently — Examine  blood  lines  carefully — 
The  individuality  of  the  animal — Not  all  pure  bred 
stock  superior  breeders — Get  both  blood  and  indi- 
viduality— Indiscriminate  breeding  spells  disaster — 
How  to  grade  up  the  herd  or  flock. 

CHAPTER  VII. 
BASIS  OF  PROFITABLE  STOCK  BREEDING 76 

Good  blood  lines — Discriminating  selection — Good 
feed  and  shelter — Use  pure  bred  sire  and  good 
grade  stock — Class  and  breed  determined  by  en- 
vironment and  personal  taste — Type  and  conforma- 
tion— Quality,  what  it  is  and  how  to  detect  it — • 
Best  animal  the  one  which  utilizes  feed  most  eco- 
nomically in  attaining  end  for  which  it  is  kept. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 89 

Objects  of  breeding — Cross  breeding — Line  breeding 
— In  and  in  breeding — Relative  influence  of  sire 
and  dam — Is  a  good  individual,  not  pure  bred,  pref- 
erable to  a  mediocre  pure  bred  sire  ? — Care  of  sire — 
Care  of  dam — How  it  differs  from  feeding  for  market 
— Blood  cannot  do  its  best  without  good  feeding. 

CHAPTER  IX. 
FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 99 

Principles  of  feeding — Nutritive  ratio — Balanced 
ration — Feed  depends  upon  the  result  desired — Use 
of  legumes — Alfalfa,  clover  and  cowpeas — Value  of 
grasses — Grains  and  concentrates — Succulent  feed — 
Special  feeds — Suitable  combinations  for  different 
feeding  purposes — Fattening  rations  and  mainte- 
nance rations — Individuality  of  animals  influences 
feeding  capacity. 

CHAPTER  X. 
PROFIT  FROM  THE  DAIRY lid 

Magnitude  of  dairy  industry — Dairy  breeds  and 
types — Efficiency  in  dairy  cows — Feeds  and  feed- 
ing— Cooperative  breeding  and  testing — Soiling 
crops  and  the  silo — "Winter  feeds  and  concentrates 
— Types  of  dairy  barns — Dairy  sanitation — Effects 
of  dairying  on  soil. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

Page 

CHAPTER  XI. 
SHEEP  UNDER  FARM  CONDITIONS 145 

Review  of  history  of  sheep  in  America — Breeds  and 
types — The  type  now  required — Breeding  and  man- 
agement— Lambing — Care  of  ewes  and  lambs — 
Sheep  in  summer — Pasture  and  management — 
Docking,  shearing  and  clipping — Fattening  for 
market — Benefit  to  soil — "The  sheep  has  a  golden 
hoof." 

CHAPTER  XII. 
THE  SWINE  INDUSTRY 173 

Factors  of  success — Breeds  and  types — Principles 
of  selection — Care  and  feeding  of  breeding  swine — 
One  or  two  litters  per  year — Pasture  and  forage — 
Systems  of  grazing — Hogging  off  crops — Details  of 
fattening — Utility  of  swine  on  high-priced  land — 
What  the  market  demands. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
THE  AMERICAN  HORSE  MARKET 189 

Magnitude  of  American  horse  values — Small  pro- 
portion of  mares  bred — Future  horse  demand — 
Breeds  and  types — Choice  of  stallion — Kind  of  mare 
to  breed — Scrub  mare  should  be  eliminated — Care 
of  mare — Why  so  few  mares  breed — Feed  and  care 
of  colt — Its  first  winter — Colt  as  a  yearling — Mar- 
ket demands  and  values. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
MULES  ARE  PROFITABLE 203 

Strong  market  demand — Prices  always  high — 
Types — Breeds  of  jacks — American  jacks  improve- 
ment upon  imported  ones — Type  of  mare  to  breed — 
What  constitutes  a  good  mule — Life,  weight,  and 
action. 

CHAPTER  XV. 
BABY  BEEP 214 

What  it  is — Kind  of  calves  to  feed — Age  and  con- 
dition— Kinds  of  feed — How  to  secure  best  results — 
,    Shelter    and    water — Forages    and    concentrates — 
Succulent  feeds. 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS  ix 

Page 
CHAPTER  XVI. 

HOTHOUSE   LAMBS 229 

What  they  are — The  market  demand — How  to  plan 
for  them — Breeds  best  adapted — Time  of  lambing — 
Care  of  lambs — Marketing — Prices  and  profits. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
PASTURES  FOR  GRAZING  FARM  ANIMALS 237 

Permanent  pastures  on  farm  land — English  prac- 
tice— Build  up  the  grass  land — Feeding  values. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
FINISHING  STOCK  FOR  MARKET 244 

Factors  influencing  feeding — Cost  and  value — Feed- 
ing periods — How  to  feed  during  the  finishing  period 
— Use  of  high-priced  concentrates — Preparing  for 
shipment — Finishing  horses  for  market — Highest 
finish  or  bloom  impossible  without  quality  in  ani- 
mals— A  stunted  animal  never  regains  its  quality — 
Profits  of  stock  finishing. 

CHAPTER  XIX 
OUTLOOK  FOR  LIVE  STOCK 258 

The  beef  situation — Cattle  business  in  transitional  stage 
— Breaking  up  of  western  ranches — Encroachment  of 
sheep  industry  upon  cattle  ranges — Advent  of  home- 
steader— Status  of  industry  in  Texas — Increasing  beef 
supply  demanded  by  Northwest — No  more  cheap  beef 
likely — Conclusion . 


List  of  Illustrations 


Page 

Elevation  of  Horse  Barn 12 

Ground  Plan  of  Horse  Barn 13 

A  Northwestern  Farm  Granary 27 

Self-Feeder  for  a  Missouri  Farm 46 

Beef  Cattle  Barn 66 

Iowa  Hog  House 72 

Elevation  of  Hog  House 84 

Floor  Plan  of  Hog  House 85 

South  Dakota  Stock  Barn 104 

Modern  Dairy  House 124 

A  Michigan  Dairy  Barn  and  Silo 133 

Elevation  of  Dairy  Barn , . . .  142 

Ground  Plan  of  Dairy  Barn 143 

An  Idaho  Lambing  Shed 155 

A  Brick  Feeding  Floor 180 

Movable  Hog  Shelter 184 

An  Illinois  Round  Barn 191 

General  Farm   Barn 199 

Heating  Water  Supply 223 

Run  for  Small  Pigs 239 

Rear  View  of  Dairy  Barn 253 


INTRODUCTION 

No  factor  is  of  as  great  importance  in  American 
agriculture  as  the  keeping  of  profitable  live  stock. 
By  profitable  live  stock  is  meant  stock  that  will 
pay  for  its  keep  and  return  a  net  profit.  The  value 
of  profitable  live  stock  is  appreciated  by  a  large 
number  of  people,  but  the  bulk  of  the  American 
farmers  do  not  thoroughly  understand  why  one 
animal  is  more  profitable  than  another.  It  is 
manifestly  bad  policy  to  keep  a  dairy  cow  at  a 
cost  for  feeding  and  maintenance  of  $60  a  year  when 
she  returns  only  $40  or  $50  in  the  form  of  butter 
and  milk  in  addition  to  her  calf.  Dairy  statisticians 
tell  us  that  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dairy  cows  in 
the  United  States  belong  to  that  unprofitable  type. 

It  is  also  perfectly  apparent  that  a  meat  produc- 
ing animal  of  any  kind  which  does  not  mature 
rapidly,  attain  at  least  fair  size  in  a  short  time, 
which  does  not  utilize  every  bit  of  food  eaten,  and 
cannot  be  placed  on  the  market  at  a  good  price,  is 
also  unprofitable.  Live  stock  statisticians  also  tell 
us  that  there  are  many  thousands  of  meat  produc- 
ing animals  of  this  unprofitable  type,  particularly 
on  the  general  farms  in  America. 

Because  of  this  lack  of  information,  it  is  highly 
important  that  the  general  farmer,  as  well  as  the 
special  stock  farmer,  should  have  these  matters 
brought  to  his  attention.  For  this  reason  this 
little  book  is  written.  It  is  impossible,  in  a  work 
of  this  kind,  to  go  into  detail  in  any  particular  line. 
The  thought  throughout  is  to  call  attention,  first, 
to  the  general  principles  involved  in  every  branch 
of  profitable  live  stock  husbandry  and  to  give 


2  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

specific  instances  illustrating  the  problems  dis- 
cussed. It  goes  without  saying  that  if  the  general 
principles  are  thoroughly  understood,  and  if  these 
general  principles  are  frustrated  even  briefly,  the 
progressive  farmer  will  be  able  to  work  out  his  own 
salvation;  consequently,  while  there  are  number- 
less books  on  different  phases  of  live  stock,  there 
are  none  which  fill  the  need  which  this  book  is 
intended  to  supply. 

The  exclusive  grain  growers  of  the  Northwest  are 
rapidly  changing  to  diversified  agriculture.  In  cer- 
tain sections  of  South  Dakota,  for  example,  wheat 
and  oats  formerly  occupied  all  the  attention  of  the 
farmer.  Yields  greatly  decreased  until  farming  on 
a  large  scale  became  unprofitable  except  during  the 
most  favorable  seasons.  Diversification  is  rapidly 
taking  place.  Large  numbers  of  farm  animals  are 
being  kept.  Corn  is  being  grown,  potatoes  and 
even  cabbage  occupy  a  part  of  the  land.  In  New 
England  the  worn-out  farms  are  being  made  profit- 
able by  the  keeping  of  dairy  animals,  of  hogs 
and  of  poultry,  by  the  growing  of  alfalfa,  cowpeas, 
crimson  clover  and  vetch,  by  the  buying  and  feed- 
ing on  the  farms  of  some  form  of  concentrated  feeds 
like  oil  meal,  cottonseed  meal  or  refuse  from  the 
flour  mills  of  the  Northwest.  It  has  been  definitely 
proved  that  these  older  farms  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  can  be  profitably  handled  if  live  stock  is  kept, 
if  leguminous  plants  are  grown  and  if,  third,  but 
not  least  in  importance,  the  soils  are  given  thorough 
and  intelligent  treatment. 

But  it  is  not  only  South  Dakota;  it  is  not  only 
New  England;  it  is  not  only  the  older  states  along 
the  Atlantic  coast  that  must  give  this  matter  of 
profitable  live  stock  careful  attention.  Illinois  and 
Iowa,  with  their  apparently  inexhaustible  soils, 


INTRODUCTION  3 

are  finding  that  with  the  increase  in  land  values, 
it  is  impossible  to  pay  even  a  reasonable  interest 
on  the  investment  unless,  along  with  corn,  hogs, 
cattle  and  sheep  are  raised;  unless  these  black  soils 
are  frequently  rested  by  the  growing  of  some  legu- 
minous crops  and  by  the  feeding  of  these  same  crops 
to  animals  raised  at  home. 

In  profitable  live  stock  production,  of  course,  the 
first  thing  is  the  raising  of  sufficient  feed.  The 
next  thing  is  the  selection  of  animals  in  any  de- 
partment of  animal  industry  whatever  that  will 
more  than  pay  for  their  keep.  If  these  two  things 
are  borne  in  mind;  if  particular  attention  is  given 
to  the  treatment  of  soil  to  produce  larger  crops;  if 
particular  attention  is  given  to  getting  rid  of  un- 
desirable animals,  no  matter  what  the  sacrifice  may 
be;  if  particular  attention  is  given  to  the  selection 
of  breeding  stock  of  the  chosen  type,  not  only  will 
the  animals  themselves  become  more  profitable, 
but  the  fertility  of  the  land  will  be  built  up  rather 
than  depleted.  The  producing  capacity  of  every 
section  of  the  United  States  will  be  increased  by 
the  keeping  of  profitable  live  stock. 

So  it  comes  about  that  this  book  is  written  to  call 
attention  to  these  important  problems,  and  it  is 
given  to  the  public  with  the  hope  that  it  will  be  a 
factor  in  greater  prosperity  to  the  American  farmer. 


CHAPTER  I 

The  Live  Stock  Field 

Live  stock  is  the  most  important  factor  in  farm 
life.  Without  animals  the  fertility  of  the  soil  can- 
not be  maintained.  Without  maintaining  soil  fer- 
tility profitable  crop  production  is  not  possible. 
True,  in  a  few  thickly  settled  countries  it  is  not 
possible  to  keep  large  numbers  of  farm  animals, 
but  where  this  condition  exists,  mineral  plant  food 
must  be  brought  in  from  the  outside.  There  is  a 
limit  to  the  supply  of  this  mineral  plant  food,  con- 
sequently the  most  satisfactory  agriculture  to  work 
for  must  be  that  system  which  includes  the  best 
types  of  live  stock. 

Under  present  conditions  in  the  United  States 
the  production  of  live  stock  is  not  keeping  pace  with 
the  population.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  in  the 
United  States  the  total  number  of  animals  has  in- 
creased during  the  past  years,  the  fact  remains 
that,  measured  by  increasing  population,  we  are  in 
a  diminished  period  of  actual  production.  During 
the  year  1909  there  was  much  complaint  among 
wage  workers  because  of  the  high  price  of  meats. 
Some  of  the  resentment  which  was  shown  towards 
slaughterers  and  retailers  had  a  good  basis  in  fact, 
because  both  of  these  classes,  particularly  the  latter, 
are  absorbing  a  greater  part  of  the  value  of  the 
carcass  than  is  warranted. 

Making  full  allowance  for  this,  the  underlying 
reason  for  the  increased  cost  of  meat  animals  and 
also  of  work  animals  will  be  found  to  be  the  relative 
decrease  in  production.  This  reason  is  bound  to 

4 


THE   LIVE   STOCK   FIELD  5 

increase  in  magnitude  as  the  years  go  by,  because 
of  the  unwillingness  or  inability  of  the  American 
farmers  to  increase  their  production  of  animals  as 
rapidly  as  the  population  increases.  This  fact 
does  not  necessarily  warrant  any  unusual  alarm, 
because,  as  the  situation  demands  it,  a  readjust- 
ment between  supply  and  consumption  will  take 
place.  Just  as  soon  as  it  becomes  apparent  that 
more  animals  must  be  raised,  farmers  will  be  found 
who  will  increase  their  holdings  of  live  stock.  Con- 
ditions in  the  United  States,  however,  do  indicate 
that  the  producer  of  live  stock  is  assured  of  higher 
values,  which,  of  course,  is  gratifying  to  him.  The 
consumer  also  must  make  up  his  mind  to  pay  a 
higher  price,  whether  he  wants  to  or  not.  The 
trend  of  high  prices,  however,  sympathetically 
shows  the  relation  of  supply  to  demand.  When 
prices  are  high,  it  goes  without  saying  that  the 
supply  is  not  keeping  pace  with  demand. 

The  following  table  indicates  the  price  at  the 
beginning  of  1910  for  the  different  classes  of 
animals  produced  in  the  United  States,  in  com- 
parison with  the  highest  prices  ever  previously  re- 
corded : 

Changes  from  High  Point 


r-High 

Year  Price  1910  Change  Per  ct 

Horses     .............  1909  $91.02  $101.50  +$10.48  11.5 

Mules    ..............  1908  99.72  108.57  +      8.85  89 

Milch  cows  ..........  1909  32.00  35.25  +      3.25  10.1 

Other    cattle  .........  1900  24.83  20.76  —     4.07  16.4 

Hogs     ..............  1907  7.63  9.15  +      1.52  19.9 

Sheep  .............  1907  3.89  4.07  +  .18  4.6 

The  above  table  indicates  that  the  prices  of  all 
classes  of  farm  animals,  with  the  exception  of  those 
listed  under  fat  cattle,  have  increased,  and  of 


6  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

course,  is  highly  satisfactory,  to  the  producer.  This, 
however,  does  not  tell  the  whole  story.  Such  a 
comparison  would  not  be  complete  without  a  cor- 
responding showing  of  the  variance  of  the  present 
situation,  as  shown  by  the  comparison  of  present 
prices  with  the  lowest  prices  ever  recorded  at  the 
bottom  of  periods  of  live  stock  or  financial  depres- 
sion. 

Indeed,  such  a  showing  probably  best  pictures 
the  present  highly  satisfactory  condition  of  the  live 
stock  industry.  An  examination  of  the  table  pre- 
sented below  will  show  that  milch  cows  touched 
their  lowest  value  in  1892,  and  since  that  time  there 
has  been  an  increase  in  the  average  price  per  head 
amounting  to  64.7  per  cent.  In  1895  beef  cattle 
touched  their  lowest  point,  since  which  time  there 
has  been  an  advance  of  46.7  per  cent. 

Sheep  touched  the  bottom  in  1896  with  the  aver- 
age value  per  head  of  $1.60,  as  compared  with  an 
average  of  $4.07  at  present,  while  hogs  reached  their 
greatest  depression  in  1897,  when  they  were  worth 
$4.13  per  head  as  against  $9.15  at  present. 
Horses  and  mules  reached  the  bottom  in  1897-98, 
since  which  time  they  have  increased  in  value  by 
201  per  cent  in  the  case  of  horses  and  173  per  cent 
in  the  case  of  mules. 

The  accompanying  statement  shows  the  present 
value  of  the  different  classes  of  live  stock,  together 
with  the  lowest  value  ever  previously  recorded. 
It  will  be  noted  that  with  the  exception  of  milch 
cows  the  increase  from  the  bottom  to  the  present 
range  of  values  has  taken  place  in  practically  one 
decade,  and  the  increase  in  this  decade  is  so  great 
that  it  would  seem  almost  incredible  if  it  were  not 
a  matter  of  statistical  record. 


THE   LIVE   STOCK   FIELD 

Changes  from  Low  Point 


Horses  

r-  Low 
Year 
...   1897 

point-> 
Price 
$33  65 

1910 
$101  50 

Increase 
$67  85 

Per  ct. 
201  6 

Mules 

1898 

39  66 

108  57 

68  91 

173  7 

Milch  cows  , 

1892 

21  40 

35  24 

13  84 

64  7 

Other  cattle  

1895 

14  15 

20  76 

6  61 

46  7 

Hogs    

1897 

4  13 

9  15 

5  02' 

121  5 

Sheep  . 

1896 

1.60 

4.07 

2.47 

154.4 

Details  by  States 

In  distribution  of  horses  Illinois  ranks  first, 
closely  followed  by  Iowa  and  Texas,  with  Kansas 
fourth,  the  last  state  having  more  than  a  million 
head.  The  average  value  per  head  of  horses  shows 
some  peculiar  conditions.  New  Jersey,  as  might 
naturally  be  expected,  on  account  of  its  location 
between  the  great  cities  of  the  East,  ranks  first, 
with  an  average  of  $120.  The  state  of  Washington 
has  a  similar  average,  but  Ohio  stands  first,  with 
$118.15,  in  the  states  having  large  numbers  of 
horses.  In  the  case  of  mules  Texas  leads,  with 
Missouri  second.  As  in  the  case  of  horses,  New 
Jersey  leads  in  value  per  head. 

The  leading  dairy  states,  as  shown  by  the  num- 
ber of  milch  cows,  are  the  New  England  states, 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania  in  the  East,  Illinois, 
Wisconsin,  Minnesota  and  Iowa  in  the  West,  with 
Texas  having  a  large  number  because  of  the  large 
total  number  of  other  forms  of  flesh  food  animals, 
such  as  cattle,  in  the  state.  The  average  price  is 
highest  in  New  Jersey,  with  $44,  followed  closely 
by  Illinois,  with  $42,  and  Pennsylvania,  $38.  Ar- 
kansas, with  $22.80,  shows  the  lowest  price. 

In  the  case  of  cattle  other  than  milch  cows  Texas 
leads,  with  $7,357,000,  or  nearly  one-seventh  of  the 
total  number  in  the  country.  Iowa  comes  second, 
with  about  half  as  many,  followed  by  Kansas  and 


8 


PROFITABLE    STOCK    RAISING 


Nebraska.    The  highest  average  value  is  in  Illinois, 
with  $28.50. 

The  accompanying  statement  shows  the  total 
number  and  value  of  cows  and  other  cattle  by 
states : 

Number  and  Value  of  Cattle  by  States  January 
i,  1910 

[Last  three  figures,  OOO's,  omitted.] 


N.     E 

N.     Y 

N.   J 

Pa 

Tex 

Ark 

Tenn 

W.   Va 

Ky 

O 

Mich 

Ind 

Ill 

Wis 

Minn 

la 

Mo 

Kan 

Neb 

N.    D 

S.    D 

Cal 

Ore 

Wash.     . . . 

Okla 

Other   

Total..    21,521      $35.24      $758,434      48,780      $20.76      $1,012,847 

Something  more  than  60  per  cent  of  the  sheep  of 
the  country  are  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  states  and 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  Ohio  is  the  only  mixed  farming 
state  making  a  large  showing  in  numbers,  followed 
by  Michigan  and  New  York  in  the  order  named. 
New  York  leads  in  average  value  per  head  again 
on  account  of  its  location  and  accessibility  to 
market.  Naturally,  the  heavy  hog  states  are  the 
states  of  the  corn  belt,  Iowa  leading,  with  6,487,000, 


,  Milch  cows  x    ,  

—Other  cattle  > 

No. 

Per  head 

Value 

No. 

Per  head 

Value 

1,049 

$38.00 

$39,862 

664 

$18.00 

$11,952 

1,837 

35.00 

64,295 

957 

17.00 

16,269 

191 

44.00 

8,404 

87 

21.00 

1,827 

1,163 

38.00 

44,194 

946 

19.00 

17,974 

1,092 

28.20 

30,794 

7,357 

14.00 

102,998 

849 

22.80 

7,957 

645 

11.20 

7,224 

382 

30.00 

11,460 

658 

15.90 

10,462 

220 

33.50 

7,370 

539 

21.00 

11,319 

402 

32.40 

13,025 

706 

21.10 

14,897 

949 

39.20 

37,201 

1,115 

25.00 

27,875 

840 

39.90 

33,516 

979 

21.00 

20,559 

669 

39.60 

26,492 

1,083 

26.40 

28,591 

1,287 

42,00 

54,054 

2,058 

28.50 

58,653 

1,249 

35.25 

44,027 

1,170 

21.20 

24,804 

1,065 

34.35 

36,583 

1,200 

20.10 

24,120 

1,668 

36.30 

60,548 

3,622 

24.70 

89,463 

878 

34.10 

29,940 

2,165 

23.80 

51,527 

889 

36.25 

32,226 

3,456 

24.10 

83,290 

780 

35.10 

27,375 

3,063 

22.80 

69,836 

248 

37.60 

9,325 

732 

24.70 

18,080 

632 

33.80 

21,362 

1,433 

24.00 

34,392 

423 

36.70 

15,524 

1,222 

20.70 

25,295 

182 

42.10 

7,662 

739 

22.10 

16,332 

182 

42.00 

7,644 

408 

23.50 

9,588 

229 

33.25 

7,614 

1,300 

20.00 

26.000 

2,666 

30.00 

79,980 

10,476 

20.00 

209,520 

THE   LIVE   STOCK   FIELD  9 

followed  by  Illinois,  with  3,646,000.  Texas,  oil  ac- 
count of  its  large  geographical  area,  stands  third  in 
number,  and  is  rapidly  increasing  its  importance  as 
a  hog  state. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  number  and 
value  of  sheep  and  hogs  by  states : 


Number  and  Value  of  Sheep  and  Hogs  by  States 
January  i,  1910 

[Last  three  figures,  OOO's,  omitted.] 


N.     E  

N      Y 

No.  Per  head 
644       $4.85 
1,173          5.60 
41          6.00 
1,086          5.50 
1,548          3.00 
278          2.75 
337          4.00 
693          5.00 
918          4.50 
3,148          4.80 
2,062          5.20 
1,093          5.05 
666          5.60 
944          4.70 
386          3.90 
628          5.60 
922          4.70 
238          4.60 
421          4.40 
469          5.00 
820          4.90 
2,289          3.70 
2,475          4.20 
744          4.25 
5,696          3.60 
6,498          3.90 
1,777          3.60 
5,093          3.50 
3,222          3.60 
1,658          3.35 
4,087          3.70 
70          4.00 
2,602          3.75 

Value 
$3,123 
6,569 
246 
5,973 
4,644 
764 
1,348 
3,465 
4,131 
15,110 
10,722 
5,520 
3,730 
4,437 
1,505 
3,517 
4,333 
1,095 
1,852 
2,345 
4,018 
8,469 
10,395 
3,162 
20,506 
25,342 
6,397 
17,826 
11,599 
5,554 
15,122 
280 
9,758 

No.  Per  head 
309     $10.50 
591          9.50 
157        11.00 
934          9.00 
3,307          6.80 
1,074          5.25 
1,249          8.00 
338          7.20 
1,025          6.20 
2,036          9.50 
1,170        10.50 
2,515          9.55 
3,646        10.45 
1,555        10.75 
1,034        10.65 
6,487        12.00 
2,723          6.90 
2,240          9.50 
2,860        10.00 
143        11.30 
705        11.00 
424          8.40 
241          8.70 
132          9.00 

431          8.00 
7,640          7.50 

Value 
$3,245 
5,615 
1,727 
8,406 
22,488 
5,639 
9,992 
2,434 
6,355 
19,342 
12,285 
24,018 
38,101 
16,716 
11,012 
77,844 
18,789 
21,280 
28,600 
1,616 
8,178 
3,562 
2,097 
1,188 

3,448 
57,300 

N     J.  .  . 

Pa  

Tex 

Ark     

Term  
W.  Va  

Ky     . 

0 

Mich  
Ind      

Ill  

Wis 

Minn  
la  

Mo 

Kan  
Neb  

N    D 

S     D     . 

Cal    

Ore  
Wash.     .  .  . 
Mont  
Wyo  
Col      

N.    M  
Utah    
Nev    

Ida 

Okla,    
Other  

Total..    54,726       $4.07     $222,857     44,966        $9.15         $411,277 

The  statement  here  printed  shows  the  distribu- 
tion of  horses  and  mules  by  states : 


10 


PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 


Number  and  Value  of  Horses  and  Mules  by  States 
January  i,  19 10 

[Last  three  figures,  OOO's,  omitted.] 


,  Horses  x     ,  

Mules 

> 

No. 

Per  head 

Value 

No. 

Per  head 

Value 

N.  E. 

433 

$115.00 

$49,795 

1 

$120.00 

$  120 

N.  Y. 

700 

114.00 

79,800 

4 

130.00 

520 

N.  J.. 

103 

120.00 

12,360 

6 

135.00 

810 

Pa.  .. 

636 

115.00 

73,140 

45 

129.00 

5,805 

Tex.  . 

1,351 

77.00 

104,027 

656 

101.00 

66,256 

Ark.  . 

281 

90.10 

25,318 

202 

113.10 

22,846 

Term  . 

338 

104.30 

35,253 

280 

116.00 

32,480 

W.  Va 

193 

98.00 

18,914 

11 

120.00 

1,320 

Ky.  . 

414 

105.00 

43,470 

196 

114.00 

22,344 

0.  .  ,. 

970 

118.15 

114,606 

15 

117.00 

1,755 

Mich. 

673 

115.00 

77,395 

3 

118.00 

354 

Ind.  . 

803 

110.00 

88,330 

83 

116.05 

9,632 

Ill 

1  447 

115.00 

166  405 

139 

120  00 

16  680 

Wis.  . 

656 

114.00 

74J84 

5 

115100 

'575 

Minn. 

772 

109.00 

84  148 

9 

110.00 

990 

la 

1  395 

114.00 

159  030 

59 

127  00 

7  493 

Mo.  .  . 

'924 

100.60 

92',954 

333 

ne'.oo 

38',860 

Kan.  . 

1,066 

103.00 

109,798 

140 

123.20 

17,248 

Neb.  . 

894 

108.10 

96,641 

70 

121.00 

8,470 

N.  D. 

595 

102.00 

66,640 

7 

122.00 

854 

S.  D.. 

561 

110.00 

61,710 

8 

120.00 

960 

Cal.  . 

422 

102.00 

43,044 

73 

119.00 

8,687 

Ore.  . 

289 

108.00 

31,212 

7 

115.00 

805 

Wash. 

322 

120.00 

38,640 

4 

125.00 

500 

Okla.  . 

443 

88.75 

39,316 

184 

115.40 

21,234 

Other  ...   3,531 

75.00 

264,825 

1,356 

100.00 

135,600 

Total..    20,212     $101.50      $2,051,555      3,898      $108.57      $423,198 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  value  of 
live  stock  in  the  United  States  at  the  beginning  of 
1910  was  enormous.  According  to  B.  W.  Snow, 
statistician  for  Orange  Judd  Company  publications, 
the  stock  on  American  farms  was  worth  on  Jan- 
uary i,  1910,  $4,880,068,000;  the  increase  during  the 
year  1909  amounted  to  the  enormous  sum  of 
$560,190,000,  or  the  largest  annual  increase  ever 
recorded. 

This  upward  movement  of  prices  had  been  in 
progress  for  more  than  ten  years,  so  that  the  im- 
portance, from  a  money  standpoint  alone,  of  the 
live  stock  industry,  is  apparent.  The  value  of  the 
different  kind  of  farm  animals  and  increase  during 
the  year  1909  is  shown  in  the  table  below: 


THE    LIVE    STOCK    FIELD 


Total  Value  of  Farm  Animals 


II 


Horses 

1910 
$2  051  555  000 

1909 
$1  816  074  000 

Increase 
$235,481,000 

Mules  

423  198,000 

369,997,000 

53,201,000 

Milch  cows 

758,434,000 

674,813,000 

83,621,000 

Other  cattle  • 

1  012  847  000 

960  966  000 

51  881,000 

Hogs  

411  177,000 

310,806  000 

100,371,000 

Sheep 

222  857  000 

187  222  000 

35  635  000 

Total 4,880,068,000     $4,319,878,000     $560,190,000 


Average  Price  Per  Head 

1910  1909  Increase  Per  ct. 

Horses    $101.50  $91.0?  $10.48  11.5 

Mules    108.57  97.70  10.87  11.1 

Milch  cows 35.24  32.00  3.24  10.1 

Other  cattle 20.76  18.95  1.81  9.5 

Hogs    9.15  6.22  2.93  47.1 

Sheep    4.07  3.55  52  14.6 

The  problems  connected  with  profitable  live  stock 
production  are  becoming  more  and  more  complex  as 
the  years  go  by.  Prof  Herbert  W.  Mumford,  who 
has  charge  of  the  animal  husbandry  department  at 
the  university  of  Illinois,  has  probably  made  as 
careful  a  study  of  this  proposition  as  any  man  in 
the  country.  He  has  not  only  visited  the  stock- 
growing  regions  in  the  United  States,  but  made  a 
thorough  investigation  of  the  conditions  in  the 
Argentine.  He  has  attempted  to  get  a  broad  view 
of  the  situation  and  has  reached  some  interesting 
conclusions.  He  finds  that  in  a  country  where 
agriculture  is  new,  as  in  the  United  States,  the 
problems  were  at  first  comparatively  easy,  but  as 
time  passed  they  became  more  complex  and  more 
difficult 

Until  a  permanent  system  of  agriculture  has  been 
established,  brief  periods  arise  when  grain  farming 
becomes  more  profitable  than  live  stock  produc- 
tion, because  temporarily  the  price  of  feeds  used 
in  the  production  of  live  stock  becomes  relatively 
higher  than  the  price  of  animal  products.  These 


12 


PROFITABLE    STOCK    RAISING 


high  grain  prices  cause  an  extension  of  grain  pro- 
duction, pastures  are  plowed  up,  farm  animals  are 
disposed  of,  and  a  very  material  reduction  in  the 
number  of  farm  animals  is  the  immediate  result. 

Further  than  this,  the  production  of  stock  is,  in 
a  new  country,  associated  with  cheap  land.  As  the 
land  advances  in  value,  it  has  been  the  common 
practice  to  reduce  the  number  of  farm  animals,  the 


ELEVATION    OF    HORSE   BARN 

feeling  being  that  cattle,   sheep,  hogs  and  horses 
cannot  be   profitably  raised   on   high-price   land. 

Then  an  added  factor  is  found  by  Professor  Mum- 
ford  to  be  having  its  influence.  In  some  sections 
of  the  United  States  the  tendency  is  toward  tenant 
farming.  The  original  landowners  have  accu- 
mulated enough  money  to  retire  and  move  to  town. 
In  securing  tenants  to  replace  these  original  hold- 
ers there  is  great  difficulty  in  getting  hold  of  ten- 
ants who  care  to  handle  live  stock.  Some  of  them 
do  not  have  experience,  while  others  feel  that  as 
their  stay  is  only  temporary  at  best,  it  will  not  pay 
them  to  stock  up  with  farm  animals.  The  recent 
tendency,  however,  among  farmers,  to  adopt  per- 


THE   LIVE   STOCK   FIELD  13 

manent  forms  of  agriculture  and  remain  on  their 
land  will  do  much  to  counteract  this  difficulty. 

WHY  LIVE  STOCK  WILL  PAY 

There  are  many  reasons  why  live  stock  will  con- 
tinue profitable.  The  multiplicity  of  kinds  and 
methods  of  live  stock  production  and  the  variation 


t 


7-0- 

GROUND  PLAN  OF  HORSE  BARN 

in  market  value  both  of  feeds  used  and  animals 
involved,  make  it  impossible  to  give  a  detailed 
statement  of  just  how  profitable  this  will  be.  Pro- 
fessor Mumford  calls  attention  to  a  Missouri  ex- 
periment where  various  forage  and  grain  crops  were 
consumed  by  hogs. 

The  hogs  used  in  the  investigation  weighed  at 
the  beginning  about  100  pounds  each.  The  corn, 
where  used  as  a  supplement  to  forage  crops,  was 
charged  against  the  hogs  at  60  cents  a  bushel;  the 
gains  on  hogs  were  credited  at  $6  per  100  pounds. 
Nothing  was  charged  for  labor  and  no  credit  given 


14  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

for  fertilizer.  An  acre  of  blue  grass  in  the  season 
of  1909,  when  pastured  with  hogs  at  the  rate  of  14 
hogs  per  acre  for  a  period  of  140  days,  was  worth, 
after  deducting  the  value  of  the  corn  used  to  sup- 
plement the  pasture,  $18.80.  An  acre  of  clover 
pastured  by  12  hogs  90  days,  under  similar  con- 
ditions yielded  $37.59;  rape,  oats  and  clover  in 
1909,  10  hogs  for  78  days,  $22.02;  cowpeas,  12  hogs 
for  32  days,  $17.71 ;  corn  and  cowpeas,  10  hogs  for 
32  days,  $35.40.  These  figures  speak  for  them- 
selves. 

While  it  is  true  that  at  different  times  and  under 
unusual  conditions,  which  have  been  unfavorable 
for  live  stock  production,  grain  growing  has  seemed 
more  profitable,  this  is  not  true  at  present,  nor  will 
it  be  permanently  true  until  the  various  grain  and 
forage  crops  fed  to  stock  come  into  more  general 
use  in  the  human  dietary.  Some  of  the  farm  crops, 
such  as  the  various  hay  crops  and  coarse  grains, 
will  never  be  very  generally  used  for  human  food, 
consequently  they  must  always  be  employed  in  the 
production  of  live  stock.  As  long  as  these  crops 
are  grown  in  a  country,  farm  animals  must  be 
raised. 

If,  according  to  popular  belief,  the  increased  popu- 
lation eventually  forces  live  stock  production  out, 
Illinois  lands  may  be  used  to  produce  crops  suited 
to  human  food.  Under  conditions  which  will  pre- 
vail for  a  great  many  decades,  however,  this  is  not 
likely  to  occur.  Statistics  do  not  prove  that  as 
population  becomes  more  dense  there  is  neces- 
sarily a  decrease  in  live  stock.  On  this  point  a  lot  of 
data  collected  by  Professor  Mumford  is  of  par- 
ticular interest.  The  following  tables  showing  the 
number  of  the  various  kinds  of  live  stock,  per  capita, 
for  dates  and  countries  indicated,  are  illuminating: 


THE   LIVE   STOCK   FIELD  1 5 

Live  Stock  Per  Capita 

GERMANY 

1810  1903 

Horses    0.08  0.08 

Cattle    0.25  0.36 

Swine    0.15  0.39 

Goats    0.04  0.06 

Sheep    1.22  0.13 

FRANCE 

1852  1908 

Horses,  mules  and  asses.,     o.io  0.09 

Cows     0.16  0.19 

Swine    0.14  0.18 

Goats     0.03  0.03 

Sheep    0.93  0.44 

DENMARK 

1881  1903 

Horses    0.17  0.19 

Cattle    0.74  0.73 

Swine    0.27  0.57 

Sheep    0.78  0.35 

HOLLAND 

1850  1897 

Horses    0.08  0.06 

Cattle    0.36  0.32 

Swine    0.07  0.23 

Sheep    0.25  0.18 

ITALY 

1852  1890 

Horses    0.03  0.07 

Cattle    0.16  0.17 

Swine    0.08  0.06 

Goats    0.06  0.06 

Sheep    0.29  0.23 


l6  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

The  full  significance  of  these  statistics  is  not  ap- 
preciated without  the  further  statement  that  they 
represent  numerical  values  only.  There  has  been 
a  very  decided  improvement  in  the  quality  of  live 
stock  in  the  various  countries  named.  A  small 
number  of  animals  now  with  their  increased  ef- 
ficiency equals  a  large  number  in  former  years.  An 
increase  in  numbers  as  well  as  an  increase  in  their 
efficiency  is  doubly  significant.  These  statistics 
will  also  suggest  along  what  lines  changes  have 
taken  place  in  live  stock  production  as  population 
becomes  more  dense. 

There  is  a  sense  in  which  it  is  true  that  the  live 
stock  per  capita  decreases.  It  is  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  a  country  when  the  population  is  small  and 
extensive  systems  of  live  stock  production  largely 
constitute  the  agriculture  of  the  country.  In  such 
instances  population  frequently  increased  more 
rapidly  than  live  stock.  When,  however,  the  con- 
ditions demand  the  establishment  of  intensive  forms 
of  agriculture  it  appears,  as  in  Germany,  France, 
Denmark,  Holland,  Italy  and  the  British  Isles,  that 
there  is  a  tendency  with  but  few  exceptions,  for  live 
stock  per  capita  to  increase  rather  than  decrease. 

I  think  the  above  pretty  clearly  establishes  the 
importance  of  live  stock  in  farm  life,  and  the  aver- 
age reader  is  probably  convinced  by  this  time  that 
live  stock  should  not  be  abandoned  in  the  United 
States  and  that  the  thing  to  do  is  to  so  handle  farm 
animals  that  the  returns  will  be  larger.  This  can 
be  accomplished  in  a  great  many  ways.  In  the 
first  place,  the  animals  should  be  so  handled  as  to 
produce  the  largest  amount  of  stable  manure.  This 
stable  manure  should  be  so  taken  care  of  as  to  give 
the  largest  possible  increase  in  grain  production 
on  the  farms  where  made.  The  use  of  the  manure 


THE   LIVE   STOCK   FIELD  17 

spreader  and  the  application  of  manure  as  soon  as 
available  will  all  tend  toward  greater  fertility  of 
farm  lands  and  will  result  in  larger  net  profit  to  the 
agricultural  population.  If,  in  connection  with  all 
these  things,  the  need  of  more  and  better  animals 
is  fully  realized,  the  future  of  the  agriculture  of 
America  is  assured.  It  does  not  pay  to  keep  scrub 
animals.  They  eat  just  as  much,  and  in  some  cases 
more,  longer  time  is  required  for  maturity  and  lower 
prices  must  be  accepted.  Consequently,  why  not 
get  good  breeding  stock  and  reap  the  largest  re- 
ward? The  profitable  live  stock  are  animals  that 
are  well  bred  and  well  fed. 

Some  attention  must  also  be  given  to  keeping 
animals  in  a  thrifty,  growing  condition,  from  the 
time  they  are  born  until  disposed  of.  A  little 
neglect  at  any  period  will  result  in  a  stunted  con- 
dition which  will  require  large  amounts  of  feed 
and  care  to  correct — in  fact,  neglect  at  any  stage  of 
the  game  can  never  be  fully  made  up,  no  matter 
how  much  time  and  money  is  spent  in  trying  to 
do  it. 

Bear  in  mind,  therefore  that  the  live  stock  field 
in  the  United  States  is  comparatively  unlimited, 
that  there  are  fortunes  in  raising  live  stock  in  con- 
nection with  general  farming,  for  although  the  day 
of  the  big  stock  ranch  is  past,  there  is  more  money 
to  be  made  and  distributed  among  a  larger  number 
of  farmers  than  ever  before;  that  the  number  of 
first-class  animals  in  the  United  States  is  not  nearly 
as  large  as  it  should  be ;  that  for  the  coming  century, 
at  any  rate,  there  is  no  probability  of  raising  live 
stock  at  a  loss,  if  properly  handled,  for  in  connec- 
tion with  the  raising  of  live  stock,  feeds  are  con- 
sumed at  home  and  permanent  fertility  of  the  land 
is  maintained. 


CHAPTER  II 

Principles  of  Permanent  Agriculture 

The  first  requisite  for  a  system  of  permanent 
agriculture  is  some  scientific  and  practical  plan  of 
soil  management  which  will  permit  the  removal  of 
maximum  yearly  crops  without  permanently  lower- 
ing the  productive  capacity  of  the  land.  This  con- 
dition is  one  which  has  never  been  fully  met  in  any 
except  some  isolated  instances  in  the  United  States. 
In  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  in  only  a  few  countries 
in  the  entire  world  has  this  balance  between  pro- 
duction and  maintenance  been  so  adjusted  as  to 
make  possible  a  permanent  agriculture.  In  some 
of  the  oldest  countries  of  the  world  certain  sec- 
tions have  been  cultivated  continuously  since  the 
most  remote  times  and  are  still  productive.  This 
may  be  due  to  some  special  condition  such  as  pre- 
vails in  the  Nile  valley,  whereby  the  spring  floods 
bring  down  an  annual  fresh  supply  of  rich  soil, 
which  is  deposited  upon  the  surface,  or  it  may  be 
due  to  the  general  practice  of  systems  of  agricul- 
ture which  tend  toward  soil  preservation.  For  the 
most  part,  however,  the  history  of  the  oldest  agri- 
cultural regions  is  one  of  ultimate  famine  and  star- 
vation, because  production  did  not  keep  pace  with 
the  demand,  and  because  soils  were  systematically 
robbed  of  their  power  to  produce  maximum  yields. 
The  conservation  of  all  possible  forms  of  fertility  in 
the  soil  is  found  in  the  practice  of  Chinese  farmers 
of  today.  Absolutely  no  scrap  of  vegetation  or  of 
any  substance  containing  organic  matter  which  can 

18 


PRINCIPLES   OF   PERMANENT  AGRICULTURE  19 

be  utilized  in  the  fertilization  of  land  is  allowed  to 
go  to  waste  in  this  country,  and  yet  there  is 
scarcely  a  year  when  many  deaths  from  starvation 
do  not  occur. 

In  the  face  of  this  lack  of  sufficient  production 
even  for  maintaining  life  in  the  overcrowded  popu- 
lation of  the  empire,  there  are  stretches  of  hundreds 
of  square  miles  of  territory  which  all  the  evidence 
indicates  were  once  inhabited  and  which  now  do 
not  support  any  population,  or  at  most  only  a  few 
nomadic  herdsmen.  These  lands  have  evidently 
been  so  depleted  by  unintelligent  cropping  at  some 
remote  period  that  their  abandonment  became 
necessary.  Some  method  of  restoring  their  lost 
productivity  is  today  called  "  the  problem  of 
China,"  and  has  never  yet  been  successfully  worked 
out.  The  history  of  India  reports  a  succession  of 
famines  in  which  millions  of  human  beings  have 
perished  from  starvation  in  a  single  year.  Even  at 
the  present  day  there  is  never  a  year  which  does 
not  witness  thousands  of  deaths  from  starvation. 
The  farmers  of  India  live  in  the  most  pitiable  con- 
dition of  poverty  which  is  known  today.  They 
have  only  enough  to  eat  to  maintain  life  at  its 
lowest  ebb  in  the  most  prosperous  years,  so  that  the 
least  adverse  crop  condition  brings  about  absolute 
starvation.  On  the  one  time  rich  cotton  land  of 
India,  the  production  at  present  does  not  exceed 
100  pounds  per  acre  of  cotton  lint,  while  wheat  and 
other  agricultural  products  yield  accordingly.  Rus- 
sia, in  spite  of  its  enormous  extent  of  agricultural 
land  and  its  normal  surplus  wheat  production,  has 
its  years  of  famine  as  wrell,  and  these  in  times  past 
have  caused  great  suffering  among  the  poor  of  that 
country. 


2O  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

SUCCESSFUL  CONTINUOUS  AGRICULTURE 

Western  Europe,  as  a  whole,  offers  very  good 
examples  of  continued  high  production  upon  lands 
that  have  been  cultivated  for  more  than  a  thousand 
years.  The  farmers  of  this  region  were  compelled, 
generations  ago,  to  face  the  question  of  soil  main- 
tenance, and  they  have  gradually  developed  sys- 
tems of  agriculture  which  seem  to  be  permanent 
and  which,  in  general,  are  in  accordance  with  well- 
known  principles  of  agricultural  science.  The 
United  States  is  the  newest  of  the  world's  agricul- 
tural regions,  yet  it,  too,  has  encountered  the  prob- 
lems arising  from  depleted  soils  and  the  consequent 
lowering  of  crop  production  below  the  limits  of 
profitable  farming.  Even  in  our  new  land,  which 
was  virgin  soil  when  many  of  the  still  productive 
European  fields  had  been  tilled  thousands  of  years, 
we  have  our  large  areas  of  abandoned  land  which 
was  once  highly  productive,  but  which  was  man- 
aged in  an  unintelligent  manner  until  the  remain- 
ing fertility  was  no  longer  sufficient  to  produce  crops 
which  would  pay  for  the  cost  of  production.  The  old 
fields  of  the  south  were  abandoned  because  they 
would  no  longer  produce  tobacco  and  cotton  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  pay  the  planter  for  his  labor. 
New  England  and  the  north  Atlantic  states  have 
thousands  of  farms  which  have  been  abandoned 
and  which  were  deserted  because  of  decreased  pro- 
duction and  because  of  the  unlimited  amount  of 
rich  lands  in  the  West.  In  Maryland  and  Virginia 
today  land  can  be  purchased  within  20  miles  of  the 
national  capitol  for  from  $1.50  to  $15  per  acre, 
which  100  years  ago  composed  the  rich  tobacco 
plantations  of  this  country,  yet  these  farms  were 
deserted,  or  practically  so,  because  they  could  no 


PRINCIPLES   OF   PERMANENT  AGRICULTURE          21 

longer  be  made  to  pay  dividends  on  a  reasonable 
valuation. 

SOIL  MAINTENANCE  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  questions  pei  taining  to  soil  management  and 
soil  fertility  are  the  most  unsatisfactory  to  discuss 
of  any  phase  of  agricultural  science.  They  offer 
the  most  complex  problems  and  are  influenced  by 
the  most  widely  varying  factors  of  any  phase  of 
agriculture.  These  questions  have  occupied  the  at- 
tention of  writers  and  scientists  since  the  days  of 
the  Roman  republic.  The  earliest  agricultural  in- 
vestigators and  writers  gave  especial  attention  to 
this  phase  of  the  science,  and  various  infallible 
formulas  have  been  promulgated  to  perpetuate 
maximum  production.  One  of  the  oldest  theories 
for  the  maintenance  of  maximum  production  is  the 
doctrine  of  continuous  culture  advocated  by  Jethro 
Tull  of  England.  By  deep  plowing  and  continuous 
intensive  cultivation  of  the  soil  this  gentleman  was 
able  to  produce  large  crops,  without  rotation  and 
without  the  addition  of  any  outside  material  for  a 
considerable  number  of  years,  upon  the  same  plot 
of  land,  and  he  concluded  from  this,  and  widely  pub- 
lished the  conclusion,  that  "tillage  is  manure,"  and 
that  thorough  cultivation  is  all  that  is  needed  to 
produce  maximum  crops  indefinitely. 

The  fact  is  as  true  today  as  it  was  then  that  till- 
age of  this  sort  is  an  absolutely  correct  agricultural 
practice,  but  the  idea  that  this  alone  suffices  to 
maintain  fertility  was  long  ago  abandoned.  With 
the  advance  of  science,  it  became  possible  to 
analyze  the  different  soils  and  to  determine  accu- 
rately not  only  the  different  elements  contained 
therein,  but  to  compute  exactly  in  what  proper- 


22  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

tions  they  occur.  It  also  became  possible  to  an- 
alyze the  different  plants  and  grains  and  to  deter- 
mine just  what  elements  they  contain  and  in  just 
what  proportions.  It  was  then  reasoned  and  widely 
announced  that  by  analyzing  any  given  soil,  and 
comparing  its  contents  with  the  amounts  of  these 
same  elements  removed  by  each  crop,  it  could  be 
determined  exactly  how  many  crops  could  be  grown 
upon  any  piece  of  land  without  the  addition  of  any 
kind  of  fertilizer.  This  theory  was  correct  in  part, 
for  it  can  be  accurately  determined  exactly  how 
much  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  other 
constituents  of  plants  are  contained  in  any  class  of 
soil.  The  percentage  of  this  plant  food  which  is 
actually  available  for  the  use  of  plants  and  is  in 
such  mechanical  and  chemical  condition  as  to  be 
used  by  them,  however,  cannot  be  determined  by 
the  wisest  chemist.  The  influence  of  various  soil 
bacteria,  some  harmful  and  others  beneficial,  is 
knowledge  which  has  been  gained  during  the  past 
decade,  and  it  is  probable  that  our  knowledge  of 
these  factors  is  only  rudimentary. 

The  rotation  of  crops  has  been  widely  taught  as 
offering  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  soil  fertility. 
Intelligent  crop  rotations  are  the  rule  in  the  most 
progressive  farming  districts  of  the  United  States 
today,  and  much  larger  yields  are  always  obtained 
than  where  a  one-crop  system  is  followed.  Where 
a  one-crop  system  is  necessary,  as  has  been  the 
case  in  some  exclusive  grain-growing  districts,  the 
fallowing  of  the  land  every  three  or  four  years  has 
been  thought  by  many  to  be  a  means  of  restoring 
lost  fertility,  because  the  crops  secured  from  these 
fallowed  fields  are  always  greater  than  those  planted 
preceding  fallowing.  Under  these  conditions,  fal- 
lowing is  a  good  practice,  and  the  rotation  of  crops 


PRINCIPLES    OF   PERMANENT   AGRICULTURE  23 

in  the  mixed-farming  districts  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  intelligent  farm  management.  Yet  none  of 
these  in  itself  restores  anything  to  the  soil  from 
which  vast  quantities  of  material  have  been  taken. 
The  mere  rotation  of  crops,  because  it  tends  to 
larger  production,  actually  wears  out  the  soil  faster, 
the  large  crops  thus  grown  taking  away  more  of 
the  available  fertility  than  a  small  crop  would  do. 
Rotation  in  itself  tends  to  exhaust  the  soil  faster 
than  would  otherwise  be  done. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  SOIL  MAINTENANCE 

There  are  certain  principles  and  practices,  how- 
ever, which  so  far  have  stood  the  test  of  time  and 
which  are  now  believed  to  make  possible  a  per- 
manent agriculture,  while  at  the  same  time  produc- 
ing constantly  increasing  crops  annually,  and  by 
means  of  which  the  fertility  of  most  land  may  not 
only  be  maintained,  but  constantly  increased.  The 
three  elements  which  are  most  likely  to  become 
deficient  in  the  soil  and  which  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  the  growth  of  the  plants  are  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash.  Several  other  elements  are 
used  in  the  growth  of  the  plant  in  small  quantities, 
but  they  usually  occur  in  sufficient  amounts  in  all 
soils,  with  the  exception  of  calcium,  and  this  can  be 
added  in  the  form  of  land  plaster  or  common  lime. 
Most  American  soils  contain  sufficient  potash  to  last 
for  several  hundred  years,  although  occasionally 
there  are  circumstances  which  justify  the  addition 
of  this  element  to  the  soil.  Generally  speaking,  the 
fertility  problem  narrows  itself  down  to  the  main- 
tenance of  the  supply  of  nitrogen  and  phosphorus. 
}  Humus  is  decayed  organic  matter,  the  function  of 
twhich  is  partly  chemical  and  partly  mechanical. 


24  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

This  decay  forms  certain  acids,  and  causes  certain 
chemical  reactions  which  serve  to  render  available 
to  the  use  of  the  plant  roots,  plant  food  already 
present.  Its  mechanical  action,  by  adding  bulk  to 
the  soil,  keeps  the  fine  soil  particles  from  running 
together  into  a  close  compact  mass  when  wet,  pro- 
vides air  and  water  spaces,  and  enables  the  farmer 
to  keep  the  soil  in  a  condition  of  good  tilth. 

SYSTEMS  OF  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

A  system  of  soil  management  which  seems  to 
make  for  a  permanent  agriculture  has  been  widely 
exploited  in  recent  years  by  means  of  which  grain 
farming  alone  can  be  continuously  followed.  This 
system  demands  the  growth  of  leguminous  crops 
and  the  plowing  under  of  large  quantities  of  legu- 
minous vegetation  in  order  to  supply  the  nitrogen 
and  the  necessary  humus,  while  the  application  of 
ground  phosphate  rock,  steamed  ground  bone  or 
phosphorus  in  some  of  its  various  available  forms 
are  depended  upon  to  supply  the  phosphorous  con- 
tent. Lime  can  be  added  as  needed  to  correct  the  acid 
condition  of  the  soil  and  maximum  crops  of  grain 
and  hay  can  be  produced  apparently  indefinitely. 
This  plan  has  its  adherents,  and  where  it  is  clearly 
an  advantage  to  pursue  this  type  of  farming  the 
plan  cannot  be  intelligently  criticized.  The  other 
system  of  soil  maintenance  demands  the  keeping  of 
live  stock  to  the  extent  of  the  farm's  capacity,  the 
marketing,  through  the  medium  of  fattened  stock,  of 
most  of  the  grain  and  hay  grown  upon  the  land  and 
the  return  to  the  soil  of  all  the  manure  made  by  the 
live  stock. 

At  all  periods  of  agricultural  history,  no  matter 
what  new  theories  or  fads  have  been  advanced  or 


PRINCIPLES   OF   PERMANENT   AGRICULTURE  25 

advised  for  maintaining  soil  fertility,  there  has  been 
a  definite  and  well-established  connection  between 
live  stock  and  soil  maintenance.  Dr.  E.  H.  Jenkins 
of  the  Connecticut  experiment  station,  after  having 
spent  a  lifetime  in  the  investigation  of  soil  problems 
and  fertilizers,  said  that  the  only  recommendation  he 
could  make,  with  confidence,  was  that  barnyard 
manure  is  good  to  put  upon  land.  While  it  is  not  to 
be  argued  that  a  permanent  agriculture  is  not  pos- 
sible without  live  stock,  it  is  true  that  much  of  the 
best  agriculture  of  western  Europe  includes  the 
keeping  of  a  large  number  of  animals,  and  it  is 
equally  true  that  some  of  the  most  poverty-stricken 
countries  in  the  world,  with  the  poorest  types  of 
agriculture,  keep  relatively  few  farm  animals.  Rus- 
sia, with  all  her  vast  agricultural  domain,  has  very 
few  meat  or  milk-producing  animals  and  her  agri- 
culture today  does  not  include,  to  any  particular 
extent,  the  application  of  manure  to  the  land.  All 
of  her  agricultural  poverty  cannot  be  attributed  to 
this  fact,  for  the  plowing  is  poorly  done  with  very 
crude  implements,  but  her  wheat  yield  of  only 
8^2  bushels  per  acre  can  in  a  large  part  be  at- 
tributed to  this  lack  of  live  stock  or  of  anything  to 
take  its  place  in  maintaining  fertility.  Fallowing 
is  practiced,  but  it  alone  has  not  been  found  suf- 
ficient. Although  the  agriculture  of  India  includes 
the  keeping  of  large  numbers  of  animals,  there  is 
little  or  no  relation  between  this  live  stock  and  the 
soil,  for  the  reason  that  the  people  are  driven  in 
their  poverty  to  using  the  dried  manure  of  the 
animals  for  fuel,  and,  therefore,  little  or  none  of  it 
is  ever  returned  to  the  soil. 

The  abandoned  lands  of  the  United  States  all  lie 
in  regions  where  stock  raising  either  never  was  a 
dominating  feature  or  where  the  value  of  manure 


26  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

was  not  recognized,  and  the  stock  industry  was 
allowed  to  decline  along  with  the  crop  production. 
Every  instance  of  the  building  up  of  these  worn- 
out  soils  has  included  either  the  keeping  of  increas- 
ing numbers  of  live  stock  and  the  growth  of  legu- 
minous plants,  or  the  heavy  use  of  commercial 
fertilizers  purchased  at  a  relatively  high  rate  in  the 
market.  The  time  has  come  when  the  American 
farmer  must  choose  some  definite  system  by  which 
he  can  procure  larger  crops  than  he  is  doing  at 
present  and  at  the  same  time  return  to  the  soil 
plant  food  which  will  tend  to  continually  increase 
the  productive  capacity  of  the  soil,  so  that  future 
generations  will  receive  the  land  not  in  a  depleted 
condition,  but  capable  of  producing  more  and  more 
in  order  to  keep  pace  with  the  growing  demands 
of  the  nation  for  agricultural  products. 

LIVE  STOCK  SUPPLY 

Under  certain  conditions,  it  may  be  true  that  a 
system  of  exclusive  grain  farming  is  necessary  and 
is  best  suited  to  the  surroundings,  but  on  the  large 
majority  of  the  American  farms  today,  there  is  a 
larger  field  for  live  stock  and  the  type  of  farming 
which  its  keeping  implies  than  there  has  been  at  any 
previous  time  in  our  history.  There  is  a  greater  de- 
mand today  for  meat,  for  dairy  products,  for  wool 
and  for  work  animals  than  there  ever  was  before. 
Population  is  increasing  much  more  rapidly  than 
our  agricultural  production,  and  farm  products  of 
all  kinds  will  undoubtedly  be  in  constantly  stronger 
demand.  The  extremely  high  prices  realized  in 
recent  years  for  all  classes  of  meat-producing 
animals  is  caused  by  a  marked  shortage  in  the  supply 
of  these  animals  in  the  United  States.  The  supply 


PRINCIPLES   OF   PERMANENT  AGRICULTURE  27 

of  beef  cattle  has  not  increased  since  1900,  and  at 
times  has  shown  an  absolute  decline  of  at  least 
2,000,000  head  over  the  number  held  in  1900.  The 
same  is  true  of  sheep,  while  the  supply  of  hogs  has 
fluctuated  from  about  the  number  held  in  1900  to 
several  millions  less  than  that.  All  of  this  is  in  the 
face  of  a  20  per  cent  increase  in  the  country's  popu- 
lation and  its  consequent  consuming  capacity.  The 
time  was  never  more  opportune  for  the  extension 
of  the  live  stock  industry  than  at  present,  and  the 


A   NORTHWESTERN  FARM    GRANARY 

absolute  necessity  exists  for  an  immediate  tremen- 
dous increase  of  the  number  of  farm  animals  in  this 
country.  This  demand  comes  from  the  crying  need 
of  the  soil  for  the  manure  produced  from  live  stock 
farming  on  the  one  hand  and  from  the  insistent 
demands  of  the  market  for  more  and  more  animals 
on  the  other  hand.  It  should  not  be  argued  that 
all  farms  should  become  exclusively  producers  of 
live  stock,  and  it  is  worse  than  idle  to  suggest  that 


28  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

no  grain  should  be  marketed  from  American  farms. 
The  acreage  devoted  to  the  growing  of  grain  for 
the  market  can  never  be  less  than  it  is  at  present, 
and  must  almost  inevitably  become  greater  because 
of  the  growing  yearly  demand  for  wheat,  but  keen 
discrimination  should  be  used  in  choosing  those 
locations  which  are  best  suited  to  grain  production. 
Live  stock  farming  should  not  be  abandoned  in 
favor  of  exclusive  grain  farming  under  conditions 
where  it  can  be  proved  even  equally  as  profitable. 
These  differences  in  the  types  of  farming  must  be 
worked  out  on  each  individual  farm  and  not  on  an 
extensive  scale  for  any  given  locality. 

SINGLE    SYSTEM    BAD    POLICY 

No  state  can  afford  to  rest  her  future  upon  any 
single  system  of  farming.  There  are  several  types 
of  live  stock  husbandry  which  are  more  profit- 
able than  grain  farming,  which  make  not  only  for 
a  permanent  agriculture,  but  for  a  higher  type  of 
country  life  and  a  more  enduring  civilization.  There 
are  several  factors  aside  from  the  actual  returns  per 
acre  in  dollars  and  cents  which  should  be  consid- 
ered in  determining  the  relative  merits  of  live  stock 
and  grain  farming.  It  is  reasonably  certain  that 
the  best  type  of  agriculture  and  the  highest  ideals 
of  country  life  are  not  possible  without  the  keeping 
of  farm  animals.  The  development  of  a  more  in- 
telligent citizenship  will  rest  very  largely  upon  the 
possibility  of  high  standards  of  living  among  coun- 
try people.  The  strongest  personal  factor  which 
has  entered  into  the  history  of  American  agricul- 
ture has  been  the  tendency  of  the  ablest  and  most 
intelligent  country  boys  to  forsake  the  farm  for 
city  life  and  the  professions  at  the  earliest  oppor- 


PRINCIPLES   OF   PERMANENT  AGRICULTURE  2Q 

tunity.  This  tendency  is  being  overcome  in  a  con- 
siderable measure  at  present,  but  its  ultimate 
solution  demands  a  type  of  agriculture  which 
will  require  a  high  degree  of  intelligence  and 
will  necessitate  the  exercising  of  mental  and 
executive  ability  equal  to  that  demanded  by  the 
best  professional  work.  American  agriculture  may 
well  heed  the  example  of  English  husbandry  in  this 
respect.  British  and  American  farming  will  always 
differ,  in  that  in  England  farming  is  essentially  an 
occupation  of  the  aristocracy,  while  American  agri- 
culture depends  for  its  development  upon  the  small 
landowner.  The  feature  which  it  is  desirable  for 
American  agriculture  to  adopt  from  the  English  is 
the  tendency  of  transmitting  not  only  the  land,  but 
the  farming  practices  and  experiences  of  one 
generation  to  each  succeeding  generation,  so 
that  one  definite  system  may  be  followed 
out  in  all  its  details  through  many  generations  in 
the  same  family.  The  development  of  some  of  the 
famous  breeds  and  families  of  cattle  has  been 
brought  about  by  this  English  custom  of  training 
the  son  to  continue  the  father's  work.  Agriculture 
of  this  type  has  never  been  developed  under  any 
condition  which  does  not  include  a  large  proportion 
of  live  stock  husbandry.  On  the  other  hand,  sys- 
tems of  exclusive  grain  farming  have  always  tended 
toward  a  relatively  low  plane  of  country  life,  and  in 
the  last  analysis,  toward  peasant  farming. 

CONSIDERATIONS    OF   FARM   LABOR 

The  farm  labor  question  is  one  of  the  most  seri- 
ous which  now  confronts  the  American  farmer. 
One  needs  to  look  no  further  for  evidence  of  this 
problem  than  the  cry  which  goes  up  annually  from 


30  PROFITABLE   STOCK  RAISING 

the  great  wheat  section  of  the  United  States  for 
thousands  of  harvest  hands.  This  extra  supply  of 
help,  which  is  needed  for  only  a  short  period  of  the 
year,  is  not  available  in  the  grain  regions,  and  must 
always  be  imported  from  far-away  cities  and  com- 
munities having  a  surplus  of  labor.  There  is  an 
annual  exodus  of  tens  of  thousands  of  men  from 
the  centers  of  population  into  the  grain  sections  at 
harvest  time  and  back  again  upon  the  approach  of 
cold  weather,  when  the  demand  for  their  services 
suddenly  ceases.  This  tends  to  create  an  itinerant 
class  of  farm  laborers,  and  is  undoubtedly  a  prolific 
source  of  the  class  of  American  society  known  as 
the  hobo.  Live  stock  farming,  on  the  contrary, 
furnishes  the  opportunity  for  the  continuous  re- 
munerative employment  for  large  numbers  of  in- 
telligent laborers  throughout  the  entire  year.  It 
tends  to  equalize  the  labor  supply  in  such  a  way 
that  the  farmer  will  usually  have  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  men  at  his  command  during  the  extremely 
busy  seasons  of  the  year,  because  he  has  work 
enough  to  give  employment  during  the  slack  sea- 
son also.  The  keeping  of  live  stock  in  connection 
with  general  farming  thus  make  both  for  the  welfare 
of  the  farmer  and  the  laborer. 

The  establishment  of  particular  systems  of  live 
stock  farming  which  do  not  suit  the  times  or  con- 
ditions is  not  to  be  advocated.  Some  forms  of 
stock  production  should  be  and  undoubtedly  will 
be  abandoned.  Others  should  be  largely  extended 
and  developed.  By  the  intelligent  rotation  of 
crops,  in  connection  with  live  stock  farming  which 
returns  to  the  soil  the  largest  possible  amount  of 
fertility  and  organic  material,  the  producing 
capacity  of  the  American  farm  must  be  made  to 
continually  increase.  These  larger  crops,  in  return, 


PRINCIPLES   OF   PERMANENT   AGRICULTURE  3! 

will  support  greater  numbers  of  live  stock,  and  the 
process  of  building  up  the  producing  power  of  the 
land  on  the  one  hand  and  increasing  the  efficiency 
of  farm  animals  by  careful  selection  and  breeding 
on  the  other,  will  tend  toward  a  profitable  and  per- 
manent live  stock  industry  in  America.  It  is  prob- 
ably true  that  occasionally  plant  food  in  some  form 
will  have  to  be  purchased  from  the  outside,  because 
the  fertility  of  the  farm  cannot  be  maintained  sim- 
ply by  returning  to  the  land  the  manure  made  by 
live  stock  fed  upon  crops  grown  upon  the  land.  It 
is  equally  true,  however,  that  most  systems  of  live 
stock  farming  demand  the  purchase  of  vastly  less 
plant  food  than  is  required  by  any  system  of  grain 
farming.  Raise  good  crops,  but  use  them  for  mak- 
ing better  stock.  Then  the  transfer  of  plant  food 
will  be  small  and  the  profits  from  the  farm  be  more 
satisfactory,  more  profitable,  more  uplifting,  and 
the  land  will  give  out  its  fat  with  readiness  and 
with  unheard  of  liberality. 


CHAPTER  III 

Agricultural  Situation  in  the  East 

With  the  advent  of  the  white  man  in  America, 
farming  was  confined  to  the  land  along  the  At- 
lantic coast,  from  Florida  to  Maine,  inclusive.  The 
soil  was  fertile  and  responded  readily  to  cultivation. 
There  seemed  to  be  little  necessity  for  giving  any 
particular  attention  to  the  maintenance  of  soil  fer- 
tility. As  soon  as  a  field  became  nonproductive  it 
was  abandoned  and  new  land  further  west  was 
taken  up.  This  continued  as  population  increased. 
The  younger  generation  crossed  the  Allegheny 
mountains  and  settled  in  the  fertile  Ohio  valleys. 
The  migration  continued  westward,  until  now  al- 
most all  of  the  available  lands  in  the  United  States 
are  occupied.  The  bringing  of  new  territory  under 
cultivation  maintained  the  general  average  produc- 
tion of  the  country,  so  that  until  recently  it  was 
difficult  to  realize  that  the  older  soils  were  decreas- 
ing very  rapidly  in  fertility.  In  fact,  today,  if 
statistics  alone  are  relied  upon,  it  would  be  difficult 
to  convince  anyone  that  soils  are  wearing  out.  The 
taking  up  of  new  land,  the  improvement  of  seed 
and  the  fact  that  cultivation  is  more  thoroughly 
understood,  has  resulted  in  larger  yields  per  acre 
for  all  the  leading  crops  than  ever  before  noted  in 
the  history  of  the  country.  Of  course,  in  the  older 
settled  sections  of  New  England  and  all  along  the 
Atlantic  coast,  it  is  perfectly  evident  that  the  soil 
is  not  as  productive  as  it  was  formerly,  but  taking 
the  country  as  a  whole,  this  depletion  could  not  be 
proved. 

It  has  become  evident,  however,  that  the  farms  of 


AGRICULTURAL   SITUATION    IN   THE   EAST  33 

New  England,  New  York,  New  Jersey  and  the  South 
are  more  or  less  unproductive.  This,  as  stated  be- 
fore, has  been  brought  about  by  a  disregard  of 
some  of  the  primary  principles  of  soil  treatment. 
As  the  demand  for  land  has  become  greater,  atten- 
tion is  being  given  to  the  worn-out  farms  in  the 
East,  and  it  is  gratifying  to  note  that,  intelligently 
handled,  these  farms  are  once  more  becoming  very 
productive.  The  tide  is  being  turned  and  many 
farmers  are  going  East,  buying  abandoned  farms 
and  renovating  them.  That  these  soils  under  proper 
treatment  can  be  made  productive  has  been  so 
fully  demonstrated  that  there  can  be  no  argument 
on  that  point.  In  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Connecti- 
cut, New  York  and  Pennsylvania  there  are  today 
farms  which  are  as  productive  as  any  on  the  face 
of  the  earth.  Originally,  they  were  no  more  fertile 
than  thousands  now  considered  unprofitable.  The 
owners,  however,  have  studied  the  problem  thor- 
oughly, have  applied  business  methods,  have  used 
the  latest  discoveries  of  science  and  practice,  have 
treated  the  soils  so  that  they  not  only  are  in  better 
tilth,  but  produce  crops  that  are  record  breakers. 
It  will  be  recalled  that  in  1908  a  Connecticut  farmer 
was  awarded  the  champion  prize  for  the  largest 
yield  of  corn  in  the  United  States  from  an  acre. 
The  tobacco  fields  of  Connecticut  and  Massa- 
chusetts are  noted  for  their  productivity.  The  po- 
tato fields  of  Maine  have,  for  years,  been  a  source 
of  great  profit.  In  Pennsylvania  at  least  one  grain 
farmer  is  producing  annual  yields  ranging  around 
100  bushels  per  acre.  The  truck  lands  of  New 
Jersey  are  very  productive.  Georgia  has  several 
exceedingly  productive  and  profitable  peach  or- 
chards. Thus  it  happens  that  many  farmers  are 
looking  to  the  East  for  permanent  homes. 


34  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

The  location  of  land  adjacent  to  the  Atlantic 
ocean  is  especially  desirable  because  of  the  prox- 
imity to  great  market  centers  like  New  York,  Bos- 
ton, Philadelphia,  Atlanta  and  Jacksonville. 

SOIL  MOISTURE  MEASURES  PRODUCTION 

The  productive  capacity  of  the  soil  is  measured 
largely  by  its  water-holding  capacity.  True,  every 
soil  must  contain  a  certain  amount  of  plant  food, 
but  if  it  does  not  have  the  capacity  to  absorb  and 
retain  moisture  so  that  this  will  be  available  during 
the  period  of  plant  development,  it  cannot  be  highly 
profitable.  The  treatment,  therefore,  of  these 
abandoned  soils  should  be  such  as  to  increase  their 
water-holding  capacity. 

The  quickest  and  best  way  to  increase  this  water- 
holding  capacity  is  to  fill  the  land  with  humus. 
This  is  secured  primarily  in  two  ways.  First,  by 
growing  leguminous  crops,  such  as  cowpeas, 
clovers,  vetch,  etc.,  and  turning  these  under.  If, 
allied  with  this  growing  of  leguminous  crops,  live 
stock  farming  is  practiced,  it  will  not  be  many 
years  before  the  Atlantic  coast  states  will  be  in- 
finitely more  productive,  from  an  agricultural 
standpoint,  than  at  present.  While  it  may  not  be 
entirely  profitable  to  raise  beef  cattle,  the  locality 
is  especially  suited  to  dairying,  to  the  raising  of 
poultry,  and  to  the  raising  of  hogs  in  connection 
with  dairying.  The  market  for  dairy  products  is 
almost  unlimited  and  the  prices  are  the  best.  The 
comparatively  short  distance  from  the  producer  to 
the  consumer  eliminates  the  matter  of  expensive 
freight  and  express  rates.  Consequently,  it  is  a 
source  of  great  encouragement  to  know  that  the 
so-called  unproductive  farms  of  the  East  may  be 


AGRICULTURAL   SITUATION    IN   THE   EAST  35 

rendered  very  profitable  by  the  raising  of  live  stock 
and  the  growing  of  leguminous  crops.  These  crops 
may  either  be  turned  under  or  may  be  fed  to  the 
farm  stock.  The  latter  procedure,  of  course,  is  the 
logical  and  common-sense  one.  The  judicious  ap- 
plication of  a  certain  amount  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizer will  also  assist. 

The  great  importance  of  soil  moisture  can  be  no 
better  illustrated  than  to  remember  that  in  order 
to  produce  a  ton  of  dry  hay  on  an  acre  of  land  it  is 
necessary  that  the  grass  have  approximately  500 
tons  of  water.  In  order  to  supply  this  enormous 
quantity,  the  soil  must  not  only  be  in  condition  to 
absorb  and  hold  water  well,  but  it  must  be  porous 
enough  to  permit  water  to  flow  freely  from  one  soil 
grain  to  another.  The  presence  of  large  quantities 
of  decaying  organic  matter,  ordinarily  termed 
humus,  adds  enormously  to  the  water-holding 
capacity  of  the  soil.  One  ton  of  humus  will  absorb 
two  tons  of  water  and  give  it  up  readily  to  grow- 
ing crops.  The  shrinkage  of  the  particles  of  de- 
caying organic  matter  and  the  consequent  loosen- 
ing of  soil  grains  keeps  the  soil  open  and  porous. 

Above  and  beyond  all  this,  humus  of  good  qual- 
ity is  exceedingly  rich,  both  in  nitrogen  and  in 
mineral  plant  food.  The  first  step,  therefore,  to 
renovating  worn-out  soil  is  to  give  it  an  abundant 
supply  of  humus.  Perhaps  the  best  source  of 
humus  is  stable  manure,  especially  when  animals 
are  fed  foods  rich  in  nitrogen.  Even  poor  barn- 
yard manure  has  considerable  value  because  of  the 
humus  it  contains. 

TILLAGE  OF  THE  UTMOST  IMPORTANCE 

Careful  tillage  is  another  problem  which  must 
enter  into  the  renovation  of  worn-out  soil.  In 


36  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

many  parts  of  the  country  the  land  is  plowed  only 
three  or  four  inches  deep.  Below  the  plow  the  soil 
becomes  sour,  densely  packed  and  unfit  for  plant 
roots.  When  such  soils  are  plowed  deeply  and 
this  sour  subsoil  is  mixed  with  the  upper  portion, 
the  first  effect  is  to  retard  plant  growth.  This, 
however,  must  not  be  placed  against  deep  plowing. 
A  better  method  is  to  plow  a  little  deeper  each  year 
until  the  land  is  annually  stirred  to  a  depth  of  eight 
or  ten  inches.  This  gives  a  deep  layer  well  adapted 
to  supporting  plant  life.  When  new  land,  that  is, 
land  which  has  been  undisturbed  for  a  number  of 
years,  is  broken  up  it  is  always  best  to  plow  deep 
from  the  beginning.  It  is  never  wise  to  plow  the 
same  depth  twice  in  succession.  In  general,  fall 
plowing  should  be  eight,  nine  or  ten  inches  deep 
and  spring  plowing  five  to  seven  inches.  Do  not 
forget  that  there  are  special  cases  when  this  rule 
does  not  apply.  Ground  may  be  plowed  shallower 
or  even  deeper  to  get  best  results.  The  object  of 
plowing  is  to  loosen  the  soil,  get  the  air  into  it, 
turn  under  manure,  etc.  It  is  also  the  prime  factor 
in  the  killing  of  weeds. 

All  soils  except  those  quite  sandy  are  injured  if 
handled  when  wet.  Nothing  is  more  destructive 
or  disastrous  to  a  clay  soil  than  treating  it  when 
it  contains  an  excess  of  moisture.  This  must  be 
looking  after  in  all  parts  of  the  Eastern  country 
where  the  subsoil  is  clay.  Of  course,  some  sections 
are  sandy  and  this  matter  can  be  disregarded  more 
or  less.  The  best  time  to  plow  is  when  the  land 
contains  just  enough  moisture  so  that  it  will  break 
up  mellow.  Of  course,  if  continuous  rains  follow 
plowing  little  harm  is  done,  but  if  wet  land  is 
turned  up  during  a  dry,  sunny  period  the  produc- 
tive capacity  will  be  greatly  decreased. 


AGRICULTURAL   SITUATION    IN    THE   EAST  37 

After  the  plowing  is  thoroughly  done  the  next 
important  thing  that  the  Eastern  farmer  must  look 
out  for,  as  noted  before,  is  supplying  the  humus. 
Make  all  the  stable  manure  you  can,  and  to  do  this 
you  must  keep  all  the  stock  that  you  possibly  can. 
Preserve  your  stable  manure  so  it  will  be  well 
rotted  before  it  is  applied.  Do  not  let  it  stand  out 
in  the  open  where  rains  will  leach  out  the  soluble 
elements.  An  intelligent  rotation  of  crops  must  be 
practiced  even  where  manure  is  abundant  and 
where  leguminous  crops  are  grown  freely.  If  the 
land  is  seeded  to  timothy  or  clover  and  allowed  to 
remain  for  two  or  three  years,  the  upper  layers  will 
become  well  filled  with  plant  roots  so  that  when 
the  sod  is  finally  broken  the  soil  will  be  in  fine 
condition.  If  alfalfa  is  grown,  and  it  can  be  in 
many  parts  of  the  Eastern  section,  nothing  is  better 
for  renovating  a  soil.  Its  roots  are  long  and  pene- 
trate to  a  great  depth.  It  furnishes  a  forage  that 
is  a  first-class  dairy  feed  and  also  is  excellent  for 
raising  hogs  and  feeding  to  poultry. 

GREEN   AND   BARNYARD    MANURES 

The  practice  of  plowing  under  green  manures  is 
not  very  general  and  probably  never  will  be  along 
the  Atlantic  coast,  but  it  can  be  used  to  advantage 
in  some  cases.  The  chief  objection,  however,  in 
this  country  is  that  the  green  crop  when  plowed 
under  is  apt  to  ferment  and  produce  an  acid  in  the 
soil.  It  is  generally  desirable  to-plow  the  green  crop 
under  and  then  seed  the  land  to  some  winter  crop. 
In  New  Jersey  and  Georgia  crimson  clover  is  used 
to  good  advantage.  This  particular  clover  stores 
up  large  amounts  of  nitrogen.  It  should  be  sown 
in  July  in  the  North  and  in  September  in  the  South. 


38  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

Sometimes  it  fails,  because  the  soil  is  not  in- 
oculated with  the  proper  bacteria.  Inoculated  soil 
may  be  applied  and  this  defect  corrected.  This 
crop  also  furnishes  valuable  winter  pasturage  for 
dairy  cows  and  for  hogs  throughout  the  Southern 
territory.  In  Maryland,  and  in  some  other  states, 
the  practice  of  sowing  crimson  clover  seed  in  corn 
just  before  the  last  plowing  has  given  excellent  re- 
sults. In  the  spring  the  clover  is  plowed  under 
and  another  crop  of  corn  planted.  Yields  of  corn 
have  been  increased  from  35  to  50  bushels  per  acre 
in  ten  years  by  this  practice.  Vetches  also  do  well, 
particularly  in  the  South.  Rye  is  a  good  crop  to  use 
in  renovating  soils,  and  it  will  grow  on  poor  land, 
will  make  a  good  winter  and  spring  pasture  and 
can  also  be  used  as  a  soiling  crop.  It  adds  con- 
siderable humus  to  the  soil,  but  does  not,  however, 
add  nitrogen  as  do  the  legumes. 

Possibly  the  best  way  to  build  up  a  worn-out  soil 
where  large  quantities  of  barnyard  manure  are  not 
available  is  to  not  only  grow  forage  crops  but  buy 
grain  to  feed  with  them  and  return  all  the  manure 
to  the  land.  This,  of  course,  cannot  be  done  unless 
live  stock  farming  is  practiced.  Dairying  probably 
is  the  best  system  that  can  be  practiced  in  the  East. 
In  this  connection,  of  course,  poultry  and  hogs  can 
be  raised  with  profit.  Another  form  is  to  grow  a 
succession  of  pasture  crops  for  hogs.  Keep  the 
hogs  on  these  pastures  and  feed  them  a  light  grain 
ration.  Where  corn  can  be  grown,  and  it  does 
grow  well  along  the  Atlantic  coast  if  properly 
treated,  plant  enough  for  the  pigs  and  for  the  dairy 
cattle.  Sow  either  cowpeas,  crimson  clover  or  rye 
in  the  corn  land  each  year.  The  two  latter  furnish 
winter  pasture  for  pigs  and  result  in  increased 
yields  from  year  to  year.  Sow  oats  in  early  spring, 


AGRICULTURAL   SITUATION    IN    THE    EAST  39 

follow  with  rye  sown  in  August  and  follow  this 
with  sorghum  the  following  spring.  In  September 
sow  this  sorghum  field  to  rye  again  and  the  next 
spring  sow  either  sorghum  or  cowpeas.  A  four- 
year  rotation  may  be  established  by  raising  po- 
tatoes one  year.  If  these  crops  are  all  utilized  and 
if  the  hogs  and  cattle  are  fed  a  little  grain  in  the 
meantime,  this  soil  will  improve.  Of  course,  where 
the  land  is  clay  it  must  not  be  pastured  when  wet. 
This  system  of  farming  takes  practically  nothing 
from  the  land,  but  does  add  a  great  deal  to  it. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture,  after  carefully 
studying  all  phases  of  the  soil  fertility  problem  in 
the  older  section  of  the  United  States,  concludes 
that  the  problem  is  not  so  much  one  of  plant  food 
as  it  is  of  soil  treatment.  Consequently,  while  it 
may  be  desirable  to  occasionally  add  plant  food, 
the  chief  thought  should  be  given  to  the  supplying 
of  the  soil  with  humus  and  to  so  treating  the  land 
that  it  will  be  in  the  best  possible  mechanical  con- 
dition. The  department  reaches  the  conclusion 
that  the  results  of  its  investigation  seem  to  indicate 
that  the  actual  amount  of  water  a  soil  can  furnish 
the  plant,  irrespective  of  the  percentage  of  water 
actually  present  in  the  soil,  has  a  very  important 
influence  on  yield.  When  the  supply  of  water  is 
inadequate  to  the  need  of  the  plant  it  is  impossible 
for  the  nutritive  solutions  to  be  transferred  to  the 
roots.  If  water  be  not  abundant,  no  matter  how 
rich  the  soil  may  be  in  plant  food,  large  yields  can- 
not be  secured. 

Summing  up  the  whole  situation  in  New  Eng- 
land and  the  Atlantic  coast  states,  the  success  of 
agriculture  in  that  region  will  be  measured  by  the 
extent  to  which  the  raising  of  live  stock  is  practiced, 
the  attention  given  to  the  increasing  of  humus 


4O  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

in  the  soil  and  the  care  with  which  the  soils  are 
cultivated.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  so-called 
abandoned  or  unproductive  farms  of  New  England 
and  the  old  middle  states  may  not  eventually  be 
made  even  more  profitable  than  the  farms  in  the 
great  central  West  where  the  soil  was  originally 
much  richer. 


CHAPTER  IV 
Southern  Agriculture  Needs  Farm  Animals 

THE  ONE-CROP  IDEA 

For  years  the  Southern  farmer  has  realized  that 
something  is  wrong  with  the  agriculture  of  his  sec- 
tion. The  trouble  began  a  good  many  years  ago 
along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  when  the  soil  which 
had  been  brought  under  cultivation  by  the  early 
settlers  of  that  region  began  to  yield  smaller  re- 
turns of  cotton  and  tobacco  each  year,  until  the 
crop  harvested  from  the  land  would  scarcely  pay 
for  the  labor  and  expense  necessary  to  produce  the 
crop.  Later,  a  similar  discontent  arose  in  the 
enormous  southern  empire  which  stretches  away 
to  the  west,  and  extends  practically  to  the  Rio 
Grande  river.  In  part  of  this  region,  the  trouble 
came  also  from  soil  depletion,  with  its  attendant 
necessity  for  abandoning  the  old  fields  and  bring- 
ing new  lands  into  cultivation;  in  other  parts,  it 
came  from  the  inroads  of  crop  pests,  notably  the 
boll  weevil,  in  its  destructive  attack  upon  the 
cotton  crop.  Whatever  was  the  specific  agency 
which  brought  about  unprofitable  agricultural  con- 
ditions, the  trouble  has  always  been  traceable  to 
the  big  underlying  principle  of  southern  agricul- 
ture, namely,  the  one-crop  system.  Ever  since  the 
days  of  the  civil  war,  the  South  has  staked  its  agri- 
cultural welfare  upon  a  single-crop  basis.  In  some 
sections  this  crop  has  been  cotton,  in  others  to- 
bacco, and  in  still  others  rice  or  sugar  cane,  but  the 
principle  has  been  the  same — that  of  expending 

41 


42  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

the  entire  energy  in  the  production  of  one  thing, 
and  depending  upon  the  open  markets  for  the  pur- 
chase of  everything  else. 

This  one-crop  system  was  developed  principally 
by  the  effects  of  the  civil  war  and  the  stern  necessity 
which  the  South  faced  in  1865  for  establishing  at 
once  some  form  of  industry  which  would  afford 
living  conditions  to  the  thousands  of  people  whose 
property  had  been  devastated  by  the  four  years  of 
warfare.  Previous  to  that  time,  southern  agricul- 
ture had  been  devoted  in  considerable  measure  to 
the  production  of  various  kinds  of  crops.  In  the 
early  colonial  days,  land  was  about  the  cheapest 
imaginable  commodity,  while  labor  was  the  scarcest 
and  most  expensive.  Crops  grew  with  little  or  no 
trouble  to  the  farmer  on  the  rich  virgin  land,  but 
the  main  question  was  how  to  get  these  crops  cul- 
tivated and  harvested.  This  imperative  necessity 
for  labor  developed  slavery  in  the  South  while  with- 
drawing it  from  the  North,  and  firmly  fastened  this 
institution  upon  the  southern  planters.  The  num- 
ber of  negroes  increased  very  rapidly,  much  faster 
in  proportion  than  the  southern  landowners,  so 
that  in  the  course  of  years  the  planters  found  them- 
selves with  a  surplus  of  labor,  more  than  they 
needed  for  the  lands  under  cultivation.  If  their 
fields  showed  any  signs  of  decreasing  fertility,  as 
many  of  them  began  to  do  at  this  time,  the  simplest 
and  easiest  remedy  was  to  move  on  to  new  uncul- 
tivated lands,  using  slave  labor  in  clearing  away 
the  timber  and  thus  subduing  rich  new  areas  of 
fertile  soil,  and  continuing  the  production  of  large 
crops.  It  was  upon  this  kind  of  a  basis  that  the 
settlement  of  Georgia,  Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Louis- 
iana and  Texas  was  accomplished.  The  very  nature 
of  the  times  and  conditions  required  that  these 


SOUTHERN   AGRICULTURE   NEEDS   FARM   ANIMALS   43 

planters  should  produce  nearly  everything  that 
they  and  their  slaves  required,  because  they  were 
generally  far  removed  from  centers  of  population, 
railroads  had  not  been  built,  and  there  was  little 
or  no  opportunity  for  extensive  importation  of  food- 
stuffs and  feed  for  their  live  stock.  Every  well- 
managed  plantation  was  a  principality  of  its  own 
where  everything  the  inhabitants  ate,  drank  or 
wore  was  produced.  The  slaves  even  made  shoes 
and  hats.  If  a  planter  desired  to  build  a  house,  he 
manufactured  his  own  brick,  and  the  construction 
was  done  by  his-  slaves,  under  his  supervision. 

The  war  put  an  end  to  this  independent  condi- 
tion for  all  time  and  drove  the  southern  farmers  to 
a  one-crop  basis,  at  the  same  time  developing  a 
credit  system  which  has  effectually  succeeded  ever 
since  in  keeping  the  South  upon  this  one-crop  foun- 
dation. For  40  years  the  southern  planter  has  pur- 
chased from  the  North  and  West  nearly  all  his 
corn,  which  he  could  easily  produce  at  one-quarter 
the  cost.  He  has  purchased  all  his  flour  at  $6  per 
barrel  which  he  could  produce  upon  his  own  land 
for  $2 ;  all  his  meat  at  10  cents  a  pound,  which  he 
could  raise  for  2  or  3  cents,  and  nearly  all  of  the 
thousands  of  mules  necessary  to  his  operations 
have  been  brought  from  the  North  at  $200  a  head, 
when  he  could  just  as  well  have  raised  them  for  $75. 

The  one-crop  idea  has  been  responsible  for  all 
this  purchase  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  while  at  the 
same  time  everything  the  southern  farmers  pro- 
duced was  shipped  away  in  the  form  of  tobacco,  or 
cotton  to  the  mills  and  factories  of  the  North  and 
of  Europe.  In  all  these  40  years  the  southern 
farmer,  as  a  class,  has  annually  shipped  away 
thousands  of  tons  of  the  raw  material  produced 
upon  his  land  and  has  returned  little  or  nothing 


44  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

to  the  soil,  except  varying  amounts  of  commercial 
fertilizer  which  in  recent  years  he  has  been  com- 
pelled to  use  in  order  to  produce  a  crop.  It  is  a 
mathematical  certainty  that  continued  subtraction 
from  a  definite  amount  will,  in  time,  exhaust  the 
original  amount.  This  is  the  plan  on  which  the 
southern  farmer  has  worked.  After  all,  or  nearly 
all,  of  the  virgin  land  had  been  brought  under  cul- 
tivation, he  had  only  a  stated  amount  of  soil  fer- 
tility. Every  year  for  40  years  he  has  withdrawn 
from  this  stated  amount  all  he  was  able  to  with- 
draw in  the  form  of  heavy  crops,  with  the  result 
that  the  original  amount  of  fertility  has  been  very 
materially  decreased  throughout  the  entire  South, 
and,  in  thousands  of  instances,  has  been  so  nearly 
exhausted  that  farming  is  no  longer  profitable. 
There  may  have  been  here  and  there,  in  individual 
instances,  notable  exceptions  to  this  statement,  but 
broadly  speaking  of  the  South  as  a  whole,  this  is 
an  accurate  statement  of  the  situation  up  to  within 
very  recent  years. 

READJUSTMENT  TAKING  PLACE 

A  few  years  ago,  however,  signs  of  a  readjust- 
ment of  southern  farm  practice  became  evident  in 
various  sections.  In  some  instances  this  was  the 
result  of  the  depleted  soil  which  had  been  continu- 
ously farmed  until  the  fertility  it  contained  had 
become  low  and  from  which  the  humus  had  been 
long  ago  removed,  so  that  the  soil  was  lifeless  and 
no  longer  responded  in  paying  proportions  to  the 
use  of  commercial  fertilizers.  In  the  far  Southwest 
and  in  the  rich  black  lands  of  the  Louisiana  delta, 
where  the  original  fertility  of  the  soil  had  not  yet 
been  exhausted,  this  demand  for  the  changed  prac- 


SOUTHERN   AGRICULTURE   NEEDS   FARM   ANIMALS   45 

tice  resulted  from  the  inroads  of  the  cotton  boll- 
weevil,  against  which  no  method  of  combat  was 
known,  except  by  changing  the  crop.  Whatever  the 
cause,  it  has  developed  in  the  minds  of  the  leaders 
in  southern  agriculture  the  idea  that  the  basic 
trouble  lies  in  the  one-crop  system  and  the  realiza- 
tion that  the  remedy  for  the  South's  agricultural 
ills  is  the  establishment  of  a  diversified  system  of 
farming,  which  shall  include  the  extensive  grow- 
ing of  leguminous  crops,  the  feeding  of  large  num- 
bers of  farm  animals,  and  the  return  to  the  soil  of 
the  plant  food  and  humus  this  produces,  for  build- 
ing up  the  soil  to  its  original  condition  of  pro- 
ductiveness. 

A  few  years  ago  when  the  soil  of  a  sloping  field 
had  been  so  robbed  of  its  humus  that  the  heavy 
rains  began  to  wash  enormous  gullies  through  the 
hillsides  and  carry  away  into  the  streams  all  the  top 
soil  which  the  system  of  soil  robbing  had  left,  the 
remedy  was  to  build  terraces  at  intervals  at  right 
angles  to  the  slope  in  order  to  arrest  this  removal 
of  the  soil  by  floods.  The  new  Southern  agricul- 
ture of  today  knows  that  the  real  remedy  for  this 
condition  lies  in  planting  that  sloping  field  to  clover 
or  alfalfa  or  cowpeas  or  some  other  of  the  many 
rank  growing  forage  crops  which  readily  grow  in 
such  abundance  throughout  the  whole  South.  The 
heavy  vegetation  thus  produced  effectually  stops 
the  action  of  flood  waters.  The  busy  soil  microbes, 
working  at  the  roots  of  the  legumes,  collect  great 
stores  of  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  add  it  to  the 
soil's  producing  power,  and  when  after  a  few  years 
the  farmer  plows  under  this  heavy  growth,  it  adds 
great  stores  of  humus,  and  marks  a  long  step  in 
bringing  the  field  back  to  its  original  rich  condi- 
tion. 


46 


PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 


Meanwhile,  he  has  pastured  cattle,  sheep  or  hogs 
throughout  the  year,  winter  as  well  as  summer, 
upon  his  field,  and  has  realized  from  them  a  greater 
profit  than  the  field  originally  brought  him  when 
he  applied  commercial  fertilizer  and  planted  tobacco 
or  cotton.  The  new  South  is  realizing  more  and 
more  the  fact  that  it  needs  more  good  home-raised 
farm  animals.  Not  only  does  it  need  greater  num- 


SELF-FEEDER    FOR    A    MISSOURI    FARM 


bers,  but  it  needs  higher  quality  and  increased  ef- 
ficiency in  every  class  of  domestic  animals.  The 
day  has  gone  in  the  South  as  well  as  in  other  sec- 
tions of  the  country  when  horses  of  no  particular 
type  or  breeding  are  profitable  to  raise,  when  a 
steer  which  must  be  kept  until  it  is  four  or  five 
years  old  to  be  brought  to  marketable  condition 
is  a  paying  proposition,  or  when  the  razor-back  type 
of  hog  can  be  profitably  produced  even  in  Southern 
canebrakes. 


SOUTHERN   AGRICULTURE    NEEDS   FARM    ANIMALS   47 

TOTAL  PRODUCTION  WILL  INCREASE 

In  order  to  produce  these  diversified  crops  and  to 
increase  materially  the  number  of  farm  animals 
raised,  it  should  not  be  assumed  that  the  output  of 
cotton  and  tobacco  need  be  decreased.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  should  constantly  grow  larger.  The  South  can 
add  enormously  to  its  cotton  crop  without  bringing 
into  cultivation  a  single  additional  acre,  and  at  the 
same  time  reduce  the  cost  of  production.  It  must 
do  this  by  increasing  the  efficiency  of  each  farm 
unit.  The  most  accurate  available  figures  appear- 
ing upon  this  subject  are  those  furnished  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  These 
figures  show  that  in  1900  Georgia,  Mississippi  and 
Iowa  had  approximately  each  the  same  number  of 
farm  families.  The  value  of  the  farm  products 
grown  by  these  farm  families  in  Georgia  was  $104,- 
000,000,  in  Mississippi  $102,000,000  and  in  Iowa 
$365,000,000.  In  other  words,  each  farm  family  in 
Iowa  produced  nearly  four  times  as  much  wealth 
as  the  family  in  Mississippi  or  Georgia.  In  pro- 
ducing these  crops,  Georgia  spent  $5,700,000  for 
commercial  fertilizer,  Mississippi  spent  $932,000, 
while  Iowa  spent  but  $337,190.  In  other  words, 
while  Iowa  produced  four  times  the  farm  wealth 
that  Georgia  produced,  Georgia  spent  60  times  as 
much  to  raise  each  dollar's  worth  of  produce  as 
Iowa  did.  The  significance  of  these  figures  is  fur- 
ther illustrated  when  it  is  stated  that,  while  Georgia 
owns  but  $33,000,000  worth  of  live  stock,  Iowa  has 
$272,000,000  worth.  These  figures  in  themselves, 
without  further  comment,  should  serve  to  point 
to  the  Southern  farmer  the  way  out  of  his  agricul- 
tural wilderness.  In  all  the  history  of  agriculture 
the  connection  between  maximum  crops  and  a  high 


48  PROFITABLE    STOCK    RAISING 

degree  of  soil  fertility,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  keep- 
ing of  farm  animals  and  the  return  to  the  soil  of  the 
manure  produced  by  them,  on  the  other,  has  always 
been  apparent,  and  nowhere  is  it  more  forcibly  il- 
lustrated than  in  an  examination  of  agriculture  in 
the  South.  The  Iowa  farmer  returns  to  his  soil 
the  fertility  produced  by  his  live  stock.  The  South- 
ern farmer  ships  all  this  plant  food  away.  That  is 
the  whole  story. 

In  every  section  where  it  has  become  necessary, 
for  any  reason,  to  change  the  established  system  of 
agriculture,  there  have  always  been  apologists  for 
the  old  order  of  things,  who  have  advanced 
local  conditions  as  excuses  for  continuing  the 
pernicious  system  of  farm  practice.  The  South 
has  been  unfortunately  afflicted  with  its  apologists 
of  this  nature.  It  has  been  argued  that  the  South 
is  not  primarily  adapted  to  live  stock  producing, 
that  it  hasn't  the  feeding  nor  the  marketing  facil- 
ities and  that  its  climate  is  not  suitable.  All  these 
excuses  have  in  turn  been  proved  fallacious.  The 
most  discouraging  hindrance  to  southern  cattle 
growing,  until  very  recent  years,  has  been  the  in- 
roads which  Texas  fever  has  made  on  native  south- 
ern cattle.  This  disease,  however,  is  now  thor- 
oughly under  control,  and  its  absolute  eradication 
is  but  a  matter  of  a  few  years  at  the  mos^ 
Any  southern  farmer  can,  with  a  minimum  of  ex- 
pense and  labor,  rid  his  herd  of  Texas  fever  and 
keep  it  free  indefinitely.  This  disease  is  no  longer 
necessarily  a  hindrance  to  cattle  growing.  The  entire 
South  has  a  climate  in  which  it  is  rarely  neces- 
sary to  protect  cattle  in  winter.  There  is  abundance 
of  forage  and  plenty  of  water.  The  southern  cattle 
grower  has  none  of  the  severe  drawbacks  with 
which  the  northwestern  ranchman  has  to  contend. 


SOUTHERN    AGRICULTURE    NEEDS    FARM    ANIMALS    49 

The  forage  which  grows  wild,  in  the  old  field  and 
waste  lands  of  the  South,  and  annually  goes  to 
waste  there,  would  protect  the  cattle  of  the  entire 
western  ranges  from  winter  starvation,  which  so 
frequently  faces  them  now.  For  concentrated 
feeds  and  grain,  the  natural  advantages  of  the  South 
excel  those  of  the  best  feeding  districts  in  the  north- 
ern Mississippi  valley.  The  South,  in  spite  of  its 
record  of  only  14  to  16  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  as 
an  average,  holds  also  the  record  for  some  of  the 
highest  acre  yields  ever  produced  in  the  world.  The 
reason  that  the  South  buys  corn  from  the  North  is 
not  because  of  the  inability  of  the  southern  soil 
and  climate  to  produce  this  crop  in  tremendous 
quantities,  but  because  of  the  absolute  indifference 
and  bad  agricultural  practice  of  the  southern 
farmers. 

SOUTHERN  FEEDS  AND  FORAGES 

There  are  millions  of  tons  of  cottonseed  an- 
nually produced.  Thirty  years  ago  this  by-product 
of  cotton  raising  was  considered  a  nuisance,  and 
one  of  the  problems  of  cotton  gin  owners  was  how 
to  dispose  of  it.  It  was  customary  at  that  time  to 
set  fire  to  the  large  heaps  which  accumulated  near 
the  cotton  gin  and  get  rid  of  it  in  this  manner. 
Finally  someone  began  to  use  the  half-decayed 
material  from  these  cottonseed  heaps  for  fertilizer, 
and  found  that  it  had  considerable  value  for  this 
purpose.  Later  it  was  found  that  the  oil  which 
could  be  extracted  from  cottonseed  had  many  com- 
mercial uses,  while  the  material  left  after  pressing 
out  the  oil  was  eaten  with  great  relish  by  live  stock, 
and  thus  instead  of  being  a  waste  product,  cotton- 
seed had  come  to  have  a  definite  recognized  value  as 


50  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

a  live  stock  food.  It  has  steadily  advanced  in  value 
from  $3  to  $5  a  ton  up  through  a  steadily  increas- 
ing scale  until  it  has  reached  at  times  as  high  as 
$30  per  ton.  In  1909  the  cottonseed  crop  of  the 
South  was  valued  at  over  $150,000,000.  The  oil 
meal  cake  made  from  cottonseed  is  one  of  the  best 
meat  and  milk-producing  feeds  known.  Yet  most 
of  this  enormous  amount  is  now  shipped  North 
or  to  Europe  and  fed  there,  its  ultimate  fertilizing 
value  being  lost  to  the  southern  fields  and  gained 
by  the  land  upon  which  the  feeding  is  done. 

At  the  same  time  that  thousands  of  tons  of  valu- 
able forage  are  being  allowed  to  waste,  and  that 
these  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  rich,  concen- 
trated feed  are  being  shipped  from  the  South,  the 
packing  houses  at  Kansas  City,  Chicago,  Omaha 
and  St.  Louis  are  shipping  into  the  South  millions 
of  pounds  of  dressed  meats,  which  have,  in  large 
part,  been  finished  upon  southern-grown  cotton- 
seed meal. 

What  is  true  of  the  cattle  situation,  is  equally 
true  with  regard  to  mules.  For  various  reasons 
the  mule  is  much  in  favor  all  over  the  South  for  a 
work  animal,  and  for  a  great  many  years  the  South 
has  been  the  principal  market  for  the  thousands  of 
mules  produced  in  the  North  and  Northwest.  In 
South  Carolina  alone  it  is  estimated  that  at  least 
25,000  horses  and  mules  must  be  added  to  the  state's 
live  stock  supply  annually  in  order  to  keep  up  the 
supply  of  work  stock.  At  the  present  time,  a  very 
large  per  cent  of  these  are  produced  outside  of  the 
state,  and  this  condition  prevails  all  over  the  South. 
Yet  there  is  no  section  of  the  country  more  suited 
to  the  growing  of  good  mules.  There  is  scarcely  a 
day  in  the  year  when  a  young  mule  will  not  run  at 
large  in  the  woods  and  waste  lands  of  the  South 


SOUTHERN   AGRICULTURE   NEEDS   FARM   ANIMALS    51 

and  keep  in  good  condition  without  receiving  a 
single  pound  of  feed  other  than  he  is  able  to  gather 
for  himself.  This  condition  should  be  taken  ad- 
vantage of,  and  the  millions  of  dollars  now  paid  to 
northern  farmers  and  stock  raisers  every  year  for 
animals  with  which  to  draw  the  plows  in  the  south- 
ern fields,  should  be  kept  in  the  South  where  it 
belongs.  Three  million  dollars  a  year  for  South 
Carolina  alone  represent  the  amount  paid  to 
northern  farmers  for  work  animals.  The  South 
should  produce  its  own  work  animals,  not  only  in 
order  to  keep  these  vast  sums  of  money  at  home, 
but  because  they  can  produce  animals  which  are 
suited  by  nature  to  southern  conditions,  while  it 
takes  from  one  to  three  years  for  northern-grown 
animals  to  become  accustomed  to  the  climate  and 
to  reach  their  greatest  degree  of  efficiency.  An- 
other reason,  and  not  the  least  of  them,  is  that  the 
estimated  value  of  the  manure  produced  annually 
by  each  horse  or  mule  amounts  to  no  less  than  $28, 
gauged  by  the  market  prices  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers. Southern  soil  needs  this  material. 

The  field  for  the  growing  of  hogs  in  the  South  is 
unlimited.  The  old  razor-back  type  which  has  been 
synonymous  for  southern  live  stock  for  generations, 
was  developed  from  hogs  which  escaped  from  their 
owners  and  became  half  wild  in  the  southern 
woods,  subsisting  upon  nuts  and  other  foods 
which  they  were  able  to  find  in  the  woods 
and  swamps.  They  increased  tremendously  in  num- 
ber without  any  care  or  attention,  and  in  the  face  of 
all  the  obstacles  which  they  would  be  likely  to  en- 
counter in  wild  life.  The  same  conditions  which 
permitted  this  class  of  animals  to  thrive  so  mightily 
are  equally  favorable  for  the  breeding  and  growth 
of  a  type  of  hogs  better  suited  to  modern  condi- 


52  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

tions.  Where  corn  and  clover  are  available,  there, 
generally  speaking,  hogs  will  thrive,  and  cheap 
gains  will  be  procured.  In  most  sections  of  the 
South,  clover  or  some  other  leguminous  forage  can 
be  used  for  hog  pasture  every  day  in  the  year. 
Corn  can  be  produced  at  will,  and  the  climate  is 
especially  favorable  to  the  production  of  winter 
pigs,  which  have  never  been  an  unqualified  success 
in  the  hog  growing  districts  of  the  North. 

The  South  is  a  wonderful  land  for  legumes. 
There  is  scarcely  a  type  of  soil  upon  which  some 
one  or  another  of  various  rich  leguminous  crops 
will  not  thrive.  In  one  section  it  may  be  red  clover, 
in  another  alfalfa  and  in  still  another  field  peas  or 
crimson  clover  or  Japanese  clover,  or  soy  beans, 
but  in  nearly  every  instance  some  one  or  more  of 
these  can  be  made  to  produce  abundant  pasture 
throughout  the  year.  The  southern  farmer  should 
never  lose  sight  of  the  wonderful  soil-restoring 
properties  of  leguminous  crops,  while  at  the  same 
time  utilizing  their  growth  in  the  feeding  or  pas- 
turing of  farm  animals. 

POSSIBILITIES   OF  SOUTHERN  DAIRYING 


Possibilities  for  dairying  are  almost  without 
limit.  Enough  has  been  said  already  of  the 
forage  and  feeds  which  can  be  produced  in  this 
section  to  indicate  to  the  mind  of  any  practical 
dairyman  the  wonderful  possibilities  of  milk  pro- 
duction under  these  conditions.  This  field  has 
scarcely  been  touched.  The  creamery  and  butter 
production  of  the  South  is  entirely  inadequate  to 
meet  the  demand.  Less  than  one-twentieth  of  the 
amount  used  is  produced  in  the  South,  although 


SOUTHERN    AGRICULTURE    NEEDS    FARM    ANIMALS    53 

the  southern  creameries  produce  a  grade  of^butter 
that  is  equal  to  the  best  of  northern  and  western 
product.  It  is  estimated  that  at  least  25,000,000 
pounds  of  creamery  butter  are  imported  into  the 
South  annually  from  the  northern  and  western 
states.  The  milk  supply  of  most  southern  cities 
is  inadequate  to  the  demand.  In  many  cities  10 
cents  a  quart  is  the  prevailing  retail  price  of  milk, 
and,  in  most  instances,  the  product  of  a  first-class, 
up-to-date,  sanitary  dairy  would  command  much 
higher  prices  even  than  this.  In  some  places,  a 
shortage  of  fresh  milk  of  any  quality  exists,  so  that 
large  hotels  are  compelled  to  keep  on  hand  a  supply 
of  condensed  milk  to  be  used  in  case  of  emergencies. 
When  we  consider  the  effect  that  the  up-to-date, 
advanced  type  of  dairying  has  had  upon  the  soils  of 
northern  communities  where  dairy  farming  has  been 
practiced  for  a  term  of  years,  and  when  we  consider 
also  the  tremendous  field  open  in  the  South  for  this 
type  of  farming,  the  results  to  southern  agriculture 
from  the  addition  of  several  millions  of  dairy  cows 
to  its  live  stock  supply  can  be  readily  imagined. 
Both  the  direct  and  indirect  results  from  the  de- 
velopment of  an  advanced  type  of  dairying  will  make 
for  the  financial  betterment  of  the  farmers.  The 
production  of  milk  and  butter  for  high-priced  mar- 
kets by  the  use  of  cheap  feeds  will  bring  immediate 
financial  results  to  the  farmer,  while  the  indirect 
result  from  the  application  to  the  soil  of  the  fer- 
tility produced  by  these  millions  of  dairy  cows  will 
result  in  a  permanent  readjustment  and  the  up- 
building of  the  soil's  producing  capacity.  Still, 
many  southern  farmers  have  found  dairying 
in  that  section  unprofitable.  The  reason  for 
this  does  not  lie  in  the  natural  disadvan- 
tages of  the  region,  but  is  rather  because  the  farm- 


54  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

ers  themselves  do  not  know  how  to  make  it  profit- 
able. In  the  13  southern  states  the  average  cow, 
according  to  the  census  of  1900,  produces  annually 
only  3,036  pounds  of  milk.  This  will  test  on  an 
average,  4%0  per  cent  of  butter  fat,  and  will  make, 
therefore,  only  about  170  pounds  of  butter.  This 
low  production  and  low  degree  of  efficiency  of  the 
animals  kept,  is  the  greatest  cause  for  small  profits. 
The  standard  adopted  for  a  good  dairy  cow  re- 
quires that  she  shall  produce  at  least  6,000  pounds 
of  milk  and  288  pounds  of  butter  annually.  The 
South  not  only  needs  more  dairy  cows,  but  it  needs 
vastly  better  ones.  In  1900  there  were  a  few  more 
than  4,000,000  dairy  cows  in  the  13  southern  states, 
producing  1,444,291,536  gallons  of  milk.  These 
cows  were  in  about  the  3,ooo-pound  class.  If  they 
had  been  of  the  standard  adopted  by  dairymen  for 
a  good  average  dairy  cow  they  would  have  pro- 
duced 2,859,042,558.  This  would  have  represented 
an  increased  efficiency  of  1,414,751,022  gallons  of 
milk  or  58,400,000  pounds  of  butter  fat.  This  in- 
crease would  have  been  worth  something  like 
$240,000,000.  In  other  words,  the  South  was  feed- 
ing to  her  dairy  cows  an  amount  of  feed  which 
produced  $240,000,000  less  than  its  true  feeding 
value  indicated.  The  southern  farmer  has  begun 
to  see  that  it  does  not  pay  him  to  feed  two  or  three 
cows  in  order  to  obtain  the  amount  of  milk  which 
one  cow  should  produce.  He  is  beginning  to  see 
that  it  does  not  pay  him  to  raise  cattle  which  are 
worth  $11  or  $12  a  head,  when  a  good  type  of  steer 
bred  especially  for  the  export  beef  trade  sells  in 
Virginia  at  from  $60  to  $80  a  head.  It  takes  as 
much  feed  and  a  lot  more  work  and  worry  to  prp- 
duce  the  former  type  than  the  latter. 


SOUTHERN   AGRICULTURE   NEEDS   FARM   ANIMALS    55 

SIGNS   OF  THE   TIMES 

Certain  districts  in  the  South  within  the  past 
five  years  have  made  enormous  strides  in  ridding 
themselves  of  the  one-crop  idea.  They  no  longer 
carry  all  their  eggs  in  one  basket.  In  some  of  the 
districts  in  Texas,  which  the  boll-weevil  devastated 
in  1903-4,  they  are  now  shipping  carloads  of  cattle 
and  hogs — this  from  a  district  where  five  years  ago 
every  pound  of  meat  consumed  locally  was  shipped 
in  from  northern  packing  centers.  This  same 
progress  is  true  with  regard  to  the  raising  of  po- 
tatoes, onions  and  other  food  crops  upon  land 
formerly  devoted  exclusively  to  cotton  growing. 
In  one  district  the  production  of  cotton  dropped 
from  16,000  bales  to  9,000.  The  farmers  were 
driven  to  raising  food  crops  and  live  stock,  and 
within  five  years  their  output  of  these  products  had 
increased  500  per  cent.  At  the  same  time  they  have 
been  able  to  gradually  increase  their  output  of 
cotton,  although  farming  a  smaller  area  in  cotton, 
so  that  by  the  time  this  tremendous  output  in  food- 
stuffs was  reached  they  were  again  producing  from 
15,000  to  18,000  bales  of  cotton. 

These  examples  of  a  readjusted  southern  agricul- 
ture and  the  best  teachings  of  the  southern  agricul- 
tural colleges,  point  out  definitely  and  clearly  the 
route  for  placing  southern  farming  upon  a  perma- 
nent and  suitable  basis.  Give  the  southern  soil  a 
chance  to  show  what  it  can  do  in  the  way  of  grow- 
ing heavy  forage  crops  of  legumes  and  what  it  can 
do  in  the  way  of  producing  more  and  better  live 
stock.  Give  it  a  rest  from  its  years  of  tobacco  and 
cotton  growing,  and  establish  a  definite  rotation 
which  will  call  for  the  growing  of  clovers,  and  for 
the  addition  of  the  fertility  produced  by  the 


56  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

animals.  Feed  those  millions  of  tons  of  cottonseed 
meal  in  southern  feed  lots  and  return  to  the  south- 
ern soil  which  produced  it  the  millions  of  tons  of 
soil  fertility  contained  in  it.  Raise  hogs,  cattle, 
mules  and  sheep.  They  will  represent  so  much 
clear  profit.  Return  to  the  soil  all  the  manure  pro- 
duced by  these  animals,  and  in  addition  occasion- 
ally plow  under  a  good  heavy  growth  of  clover. 
Work  into  the  soil  all  the  organic  matter  which  it 
can  take  care  of.  Southern  soils  must  be  built  up 
and  maintained.  There  is  no  new  land  to  be  opened 
when  this  wears  out.  Place  soil  maintenance  upon 
a  rational  and  scientific  basis  with  a  well-defined 
rotation  of  crops,  with  extensive  live  stock  pro- 
duction as  the  balancing  factor  and  connecting  link 
between  rotation  and  permanent  fertility,  and  the 
South  will  present  a  condition  of  agricultural  pros- 
perity which  has  never  been  equaled  by  northern 
localities  less  favored  by  natural  conditions. 


CHAPTER  V 

Let  the  West  Heed  the  Warning 

The  various  examples  of  gradually  decreasing 
yields  in  the  southern  states  and  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  should  be  sufficient  warning  to  the  dwellers 
in  the  more  fertile  and  newer  regions  of  the  West 
and  Northwest.  While  it  would  be  difficult  to 
prove  by  statistics  that  the  total  yield  of  grains 
and  other  crops  throughout  the  United  States  is 
less  than  formerly,  this  decrease  is  evident  and 
easily  proved  in  parts  of  New  England,  New  York, 
New  Jersey  and  the  south  Atlantic  states,  where 
the  ground  has  been  cultivated  for  several  hundred 
years.  In  those  localities  there  is  not  any  ques- 
tion as  to  the  result  of  continuous  grain  cropping 
and  failure  to  keep  large  numbers  of  live  stock.  In 
fact,  in  many  sections  a  considerable  percentage  of 
the  farm  land  is  unprofitable  because  of  waning 
production.  On  the  other  hand,  in  these  same  old 
localities,  frequently  examples  of  maintained  fer- 
tility and  increased  crop  production  demonstrate 
that  by  intelligent  handling  the  productive  capacity 
of  almost  any  soil  in  the  United  States  may  con- 
tinue for  an  indefinite  period. 

The  most  disastrous  feature  in  these  older  sec- 
tions, and  which  the  West  should  heed,  is  the 
growing  of  grain  crops  continuously  on  the  same 
land.  It  has  been  positively  proved  that  decreased 
yields  under  those  conditions  must  follow.  In 
1888,  an  experimental  plot  in  Champaign  county, 
Illinois,  under  the  direction  of  the  university  of 
Illinois,  was  set  aside  for  continuous  corn  grow- 

57 


58  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

ing.  That  year  the  plat  yielded  54.3  bushels  to  the 
acre.  The  same  plat  in  1909  yielded  29.4  bushels 
per  acre.  This  is  one  of  the  longest  and  most  satis- 
factory experiments  in  the  country  with  corn,  and 
may  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  the  final  result  of 
cropping  without  rotation  and  live  stock. 

While  the  general  farmer  does  not,  of  course, 
grow  one  grain  continuously,  he  very  frequently 
thinks  that  the  rotation  of  corn  with  oats  and 
wheat  ought  to  bring  him  good  results.  Yields 
from  that  kind  of  a  rotation,  for  a  time  at  least, 
will  be  greater  than  from  continuous  growing  of 
corn,  or  wheat  or  oats,  but  in  tim'e  the  land  will 
become  unprofitable.  He  soon  learns  that  he  must 
include  in  the  rotation  leguminous  crops — the  com- 
mon clovers,  alfalfa,  beans,  peas  and  vetches.  If 
along  with  this  he  maintains  enough  live  stock  to 
consume  the  bulk  of  the  grain  and  forage  grown  on 
his  farm,  he  can  continue  to  raise  profitable  crops 
almost  indefinitely,  provided  he  does  not  abuse  his 
land  by  working  it  when  too  wet,  or  by  allowing  his 
farm  animals  on  the  fields  when  the  ground  is  full 
of  moisture. 

A  little  figuring  will  demonstrate  what  the  de- 
crease in  production  really  means  to  the  United 
States  in  particular  and  to  the  world,  as  a  whole. 
With  the  increase  in  population  it  will  not  be  many 
years  before  famine  conditions  will  exist  in  nearly 
every  section.  Of  course,  no  one  expects  that 
farmers  will  be  so  unwise  as  to  permit  anything  of 
this  kind,  but  lack  of  intelligence  and  system  in 
handling  lands  will  ultimately  result  in  just  this 
thing.  Statistics  going  as  far  back  as  records  are 
available  in  the  United  States  indicate  that  for  the 
United  States,  as  a  whole,  the  yield  of  crops  has 
increased  in  the  aggregate  per  acre,  rather  than 


LET  THE   WEST   HEED   THE   WARNING  5Q 

decreased,  as  is  commonly  supposed.  That  this 
will  continue  is  hardly  to  be  expected.  Up  until 
within  the  last  decade  vast  tracts  of  new  lands 
have  been  opened  each  season  and  large  yields  from 
these  have  tended  to  maintain  the  general  average. 
Further  than  that,  the  number  of  farm  animals  in 
the  country  have  also  shown  an  increase.  It  is  a 
recognized  fact  that  the  increase  in  the  productive 
capacity  keeps  pace  with  the  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  farm  animals  kept. 

Again,  going  back  to  figures,  it  has  been  shown 
that  a  loo-bushel  crop  of  corn  takes  from  the  soil 
about  100  pounds  of  nitrogen,  17  pounds  of  phos- 
phorus and  19  pounds  of  potassium  in  the  grain, 
and  about  48  pounds  of  nitrogen,  six  pounds  of 
phosphorus  and  52  pounds  of  potassium  in  the 
stalks.  Now,  if  this  grain  and  forage  is  all  fed 
on  the  farm  about  three-fourths  of  the  nitrogen 
and  phosphorus  and  one-third  of  the  potassium  is 
left  behind  and  is  available  for  future  crops,  pro- 
vided the  manure  is  properly  taken  care  of.  If  the 
manure  is  neglected  one-half  of  the  fertilizer  con- 
stituents are  frequently  dissipated  in  three  or  four 
months. 

FARM    MANURE    VERY    VALUABLE 

Now,  to  show  how  really  valuable  farm  manure 
is  it  must  be  remembered  that  each  ton  of  fresh 
manure  contains  about  10  pounds  of  nitrogen,  2 
pounds  of  phosphorus  and  8  pounds  of  potassium. 
As  the  nitrogen  used  in  crop  production  can  easily 
be  collected  from  the  air  by  growing  leguminous 
crops,  there  is  no  reason  why  there  should  be  any 
expense  in  supplying  this  element.  One  ton  of  clover 
hay  contains  about  40  pounds  of  nitrogen,  5  pounds 


6O  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

of  phosphorus  and  30  pounds  of  potassium.  When 
grown  on  soil  of  average  productiveness,  the  roots 
and  stubble  contain  about  as  much  nitrogen  as  the 
soil  has  furnished  to  the  plants,  so  that  that  con- 
tained in  the  forage  is  the  quantity  added,  provided 
it  is  fed  on  the  farm. 

The  phosphorus  and  potassium  actually  used  in 
crop  production  must  be  supplied  by  the  purchase 
of  commercial  fertilizers  in  the  form  of  bone  meal, 
rock  phosphate  and  the  various  potassium  salts. 
The  proposition  to  supply  the  necessary  organic 
matter  and  keep  the  land  in  proper  mechanical  con- 
dition is  not  very  difficult,  because  where  live  stock 
is  kept  there  must  be  enough  of  this  material  for 
feeding  the  animals. 

With  these  facts  in  mind  it  is  self-evident  that 
shipping  away  vast  quantities  of  corn,  oats  and  hay 
is  exceedingly  bad  practice.  It  is  bad  practice  from 
the  standpoint  of  soil  fertility,  and  it  is  bad  practice 
to  sell  the  raw  material  rather  than  work  it  into  the 
finished  product,  for  the  manufacturer's  profits  are 
lost.  It  is  bad  practice  to  dispose  of  any  raw  mate- 
rial on  the  farm,  if  by  utilizing  it  at  home  a  higher 
grade  of  production  can  be  secured  and  the  cost  of 
marketing  thereby  greatly  reduced.  Compare,  for 
example,  how  much  less  expensive  it  is  to  market 
several  carloads  of  cattle  than  to  dispose  of  the 
corn  and  hay  and  other  feeds  required  to  feed  them 
for  market.  A  further  illustration  is  seen  in  the 
dairy  industry,  where  the  milk  is  sold  in  bulk  and 
shipped  to  distributing  centers.  Where  this  whole 
milk  is  sent  to  the  creamery  the  skim  milk  is  hauled 
back  by  the  man  who  delivers  the  whole  milk  and 
the  cost  is  practically  nothing.  The  butter,  which 
represents  the  finished  product,  is  so  small  in  bulk, 
compared  to  the  milk,  that  the  cost  of  marketing  is 


LET  THE   WEST  HEED  THE   WARNING  6l 

greatly  lessened.  It  is  the  same  all  along  the  line. 
Market  everything  you  can  through  your  horses, 
your  cattle,  your  hogs,  or  your  sheep. 

STOCK  ON  HIGH  PRICE  LAND 

Accepting  the  above  as  good,  sound  business 
policy,  the  question  naturally  arises,  can  live  stock 
be  profitably  raised  on  $200  an  acre  land?  Prof.  H. 
W.  Mumford  of  the  university  of  Illinois  insists  that 
it  can.  Some  forms  of  live  stock  production  should 
and  will  be  abandoned.  Scrubs  must  be  disposed  of. 
Plenty  of  feed  must  be  used  and  the  feed  must  be 
economically  and  judiciously  handled.  Contrary  to 
the  opinion  that  has  been  frequently  expressed, 
Professor  Mumford  states  that  except  in  minor  in- 
stances, it  is  not  true  that  the  older  agricultural 
countries  like  Germany,  France,  Holland  and  Den- 
mark, are  abandoning  live  stock  production  because 
of  increased  population  and  increased  price  of  land. 
Whether  or  not  live  stock  may  ultimately  disappear 
from  the  farms  of  the  United  States  is  largely  a 
matter  of  conjecture.  This  tendency  is  so  remote 
that  at  present  it  need  not  be  considered.  It  is  the 
consumption  of  corn  and  other  grains  and  hay  by 
live  stock  that  makes  it  possible  for  the  man  in  the 
middle  West  to  produce  heavily  and  thus  reach  this 
present  high  valuation.  With  the  elimination  of  live 
stock  husbandry  this  large  return  would  not  be 
possible.  It  is  estimated  that  80  per  cent  of 
the  corn  produced  in  the  United  States  is  fed 
to  live  stock.  This  home  consumption,  therefore, 
is  the  chief  reason  for  the  high-price  grain  and  con- 
sequent high  price  of  land.  Not  every  farmer  will 
be  able  to  make  live  stock  on  $200  an  acre  land  pay, 
but,  as  a  rule,  the  intelligent,  skillful  feeder  can  and 


62  PROFITABLE    STOCK   RAISING 

every  farmer,  even  on  this  high-price  land,  will  find 
it  to  his  advantage  to  keep  a  limited  number,  at 
least,  of  all  classes  of  animals  adapted  to  farm  con- 
ditions. 

While  it  is  true  that  profitable  stock  production 
up  to  date  has  been  usually  associated  with  the 
cheap  lands  and  with  free  range  in  the  West,  it  is 
also  true  that  with  the  settlement  of  these  areas 
the  total  number  of  animals  in  the  United  States 
is  increasing  and  the  benefit  to  the  section  as  a 
whole  is  becoming  greater  and  greater  every  year. 
Therefore,  there  is  probably  very  little  force  in  any 
argument  against  the  general  proposition  that  stock 
carefully  selected,  intelligently  handled  and  eco- 
nomically fed  is  profitable  on  any  land  in  the  coun- 
try. 

The  most  difficult  problem  in  profitable  live  stock 
husbandry  on  lands  of  the  middle  and  western 
states,  under  present  conditions,  is  that  of  cattle. 
Cattle  require  a  large  grazing  area,  and  they  must 
be  at  least  two  years  old  before  they  can  profitably 
be  disposed  of.  The  best  authorities  say  that  even 
under  these  conditions  there  is  no  reason  why,  by 
selecting  breeding  stock  with  great  care,  by  feeding 
economically  and  judiciously,  cattle  production  is 
not  profitable.  With  hogs  and  sheep,  however, 
the  problem  is  quite  different.  It  is  much  easier 
to  get  a  start  with  either  hogs  or  sheep,  they  mul- 
tiply more  rapidly,  can  be  kept  on  more  restricted 
areas  and  do  not  consume  nearly  as  large  quan- 
tities of  feed. 

Taking  sheep,  there  is  little  or  no  reason,  present 
prices  of  wool  and  mutton  considered,  why  every 
farm  in  the  United  States  should  not  support  a 
flock  containing  all  the  way  from  25  to  60  head. 
It  may  surprise  many  to  know  that  a  flock  of  this 


LET  THE   WEST   HEED   THE    WARNING  63 

size  on  the  average  farm  can  be  kept  at  very  little 
expense.  They  will  eat  feed  that  other  animals 
pass  by,  will  destroy  and  keep  down  weeds,  will 
clean  up  brush  fields,  will  eat  cheap  roots  and  occupy 
very  little  stable  room.  They  are  not  expensive 
animals  to  take  care  of,  and  the  cost  of  maintenance 
for  a  year,  if  they  are  handled  as  indicated  above, 
is  so  small  that  the  greater  part  of  the  balance  from 
sales  of  wool  or  mutton  is  net  profit.  By  annually 
culling  out  the  older  and  inferior  animals  a  small 
flock  of  high  quality  can  be  maintained.  They  will 
bring  a  nice  sum  of  money  from  the  sale  of  wool 
alone.  Every  fall  or  winter  a  number  of  animals 
are  available  for  fattening  and  sale  as  mutton. 
Sheep  manure  is  exceedingly  rich  and  being  finely 
divided  and  widely  distributed,  is  a  valuable  asset 
to  the  farmer  who  keeps  a  flock.  Sheep  husbandry 
for  the  West  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  means  by 
which  the  waning  fertility  may  be  checked  and  con- 
ditions now  existing  in  the  older  states  prevented. 
Much  the  same  conditions  surround  the  hog  situ- 
ation. Of  course,  hogs  do  not  consume  as  much 
waste  material  as  sheep.  They  must  have  con- 
siderable grain,  particularly  corn.  But  if  properly 
handled,  sows  may  be  made  to  produce  two  litters 
of  pigs  every  year,  and  at  this  rate  it  is  easily  pos- 
sible to  very  rapidly  increase  the  hog  stock  and  still 
have  available  for  sale  every  season  a  nice  lot  of 
fat  hogs,  which  at  prices  that  have  prevailed  dur- 
ing the  past  few  years,  are  immensely  profitable. 
Hogs  can  be  partially  fattened  on  clover  pasture 
and  on  rape  and  on  other  crops  which  tend  to 
increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  improve  the 
mechanical  condition.  Hogs  do  not  require  a  large 
amount  of  shelter,  are  easily  handled,  and  during 
the  past  ten  years  have  not  been  subject  to  nearly 


64  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

so  severe  outbreaks  of  cholera  and  other  swine 
diseases  as  a  couple  of  decades  ago. 

That  the  supply  of  hogs  is  not  keeping  pace  with 
the  demand  is  proved  by  the  wonderfully  high 
prices  paid  for  fat  hogs  during  the  winter  of  1909- 
10,  when  hogs  at  the  central  markets  sold  for  10 
to  ii  cents  on  the  hoof  for  weeks  at  a  time.  There 
is  no  reason  why  the  industry  should  not  be  im- 
mensely profitable,  even  though  the  stock  be  raised 
on  $200  an  acre  land  and  fed  6o-cent  corn. 

The  keeping  of  hogs  and  of  sheep  both  tend  to 
prevent  waning  fertility,  because  of  the  fact  that 
they  thrive  and  fatten  on  leguminous  crops,  par- 
ticularly the  common  clovers,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  soy 
beans  and  in  addition  both  are  well  fitted  to  con- 
sume root  crops  such  as  turnips.  All  these  crops 
both  add  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  improve  the 
mechanical  condition,  so  that  while  the  hogs  and 
sheep  are  being  fattened  and  fed,  the  productive 
capacity  of  the  land  is  being  increased. 

As  has  been  so  frequently  stated,  one  of  the 
most  expensive  plant  foods  necessary  to  maintain- 
ing fertility  is  nitrogen.  This  can  be  secured  by 
the  growing  of  clover  and  leguminous  crops  and  if 
large  areas  of  these  crops  can  be  raised  every  year 
on  every  Illinois  farm,  and  if  these  crops  are  con- 
sumed by  some  kind  of  live  stock,  the  West  will 
never  be  compelled  to  make  good  a  lost  fertility, 
as  is  being  done  in  the  East. 

FEED    ANIMALS    LIBERALLY 

The  presence  of  large  numbers  of  farm  animals  is 
not,  however,  the  only  item  that  is  necessary  to 
prevent  waning  fertility.  These  animals  must  be 
liberally  fed  and  the  feeds,  if  the  whole  proposition 


LET  THE   WEST   HEED   THE   WARNING  65 

is  to  be  profitable,  must  be  largely  produced  at 
home.  Consequently,  first  see  that  you  have 
plenty  of  live  stock  and  then  see  that  your  land  is 
in  good  condition  and  capable  of  producing  large 
crops.  After  you  have  secured  the  crops  see  that 
the  stock  is  given  a  liberal  quantity  and  that  this  is 
fed  judiciously,  so  that  the  largest  amount  of  benefit 
is  received.  There  is  an  old  saying  that  the  more 
manure  produced  on  the  farm  the  bigger  the  crops 
and  that  the  bigger  the  crops  the  more  live  stock 
can  be  kept.  This  saying  is  just  as  true  now  as 
200  years  ago.  Corn,  alfalfa  and  common  clover 
must  be  the  tripod  supporting  western  agriculture. 
Since  the  matter  of  beef  production  is  of  such 
paramount  importance,  it  goes  without  saying  that 
on  many  farms  in  the  middle  West  more  feed  will 
be  demanded  than  can  be  supplied  by  the  acreage 
under  cultivation.  Consequently,  a  careful  con- 
sideration of  buying  feed  for  cattle  is  worthy  of  dis- 
cussion. As  a  general  proposition  it  is  a  pretty 
difficult  problem  for  a  cattleman  to  show  a  con- 
siderable profit  where  he  must  buy  all  his  feed, 
including  corn,  or  other  concentrates  and  forage. 
The  resident  of  the  corn  belt,  therefore,  is  fortunate 
in  that  the  bulk  of  the  forage  and  the  greater  part 
of  his  grain  feed  can  be  purchased  at  home.  The 
age  and  condition  of  the  cattle  used  must,  of  course 
be  considered.  To  fatten  a  two-year-old  steer 
weighing  1,000  pounds  will  require  about  six 
months.  During  this  time  from  55  to  65  bushels 
of  corn  and  one  ton  of  hay  will  be  used.  It  pays 
to  supplement  this  carbonaceous  feed  with  small 
quantities  of  oil  meal  or  cottonseed  meal.  Then, 
if  clover  and  alfalfa  are  available,  conditions  are 
quite  satisfactory.  If  cattle  are  on  grass  during 
the  time  the  grain  is  being  fed,  gains  will  be  made 


66 


PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 


at  a  comparatively  small  cost.  If  the  feeder  knows 
about  how  much  stuff  his  animals  will  consume 
during  the  feeding  period  he  will  be  able  to  deter- 
mine whether  or  not  he  can  feed  to  advantage. 
So  much  depends  upon  local  conditions  that  it  is 
absolutely  impossible  in  a  work  of  this  kind  to  give 
any  absolute  and  specific  advice.  The  cost  of  feed 
any  one  season,  the  price  received  for  fat  animals, 


BEEF    CATTLE  BARN 


the  cost  of  hired   help — all  these  things   must  be 
looked  at  in  the  light  of  local  conditions. 

The  number  of  cattle  to  be  kept  on  the  individual 
farm  is  also  a  matter  which  the  owner  must  decide 
for  himself.  It  would  probably  be  inadvisable, 
however,  to  feed  less  than  a  carload.  He  can 
handle  these  nicely  on  a  small  farm,  and  is  in  a 
position  to  secure  numerous  advantages  in  the  way 
of  reduction  on  freight,  labor,  purchased  feeds,  etc. 
Of  course,  if  he  can  feed  several  carloads,  he  has 
still  further  advantages.  Some  animals  do  not 
fatten  quite  as  quickly  as  others,  so  that  those  ready 


LET  THE   WEST   HEED   THE   WARNING  67 

first  can  be  picked  out  and  shipped  and  the  others 
finished  later.  The  successful  feeding  of  cattle 
loses  much  of  the  labor  to  those  who  make  a  close 
study  of  the  business,  who  take  advantage  of  every 
favorable  opportunity  of  carefully  selecting  and 
utilizing  the  various  feeds  available. 

There  are  a  number  of  things  in  feeding  cattle 
which  must  be  avoided.  For  example,  one  suc- 
cess in  a  neighborhood  often  results  in  disaster 
to  those  who  have  not  had  large  experience.  They 
figure  that  if  one  farmer  can  feed  cattle  success- 
fully, there  is  no  reason  why  another  cannot,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  this  other  farmer  has  had  no 
previous  training  and  does  not  know  how  to  make 
every  item  count.  The  only  way  to  succeed  is  to 
start  in  a  small  way.  Eventually  you  will  become 
a  skilled  feeder  and  will  know  how  to  make  a  profit 
almost  every  year.  In  nearly  every  case  cattle  for 
feeding  have  to  be  purchased  from  outside.  The 
profit  in  the  proposition  will  depend  very  largely 
upon  your  skill  in  making  a  purchase.  Not  only 
should  the  animals  be  bought  as  cheaply  as  pos- 
sible, but  the  great  problem  is  to  be  a  good  enough 
judge  of  feeders  to  select  steers  of  a  quiet  disposi- 
tion, of  typical  beef  conformation  and  animals  that 
will  put  on  fat  rapidly,  at  the  least  possible  cost. 
After  this  is  done  the  matter  of  starting  them  on 
feed  gradually  and  also  being  able  to  detect  im- 
mediately any  symptoms  indicating  sickness  or 
failure  to  properly  utilize  all  feed  given,  are  of  prime 
importance. 

The  general  principles  enumerated  above  in  re- 
gard to  cattle  feeding  apply  also  to  feeding  sheep 
and  hogs  and  to  a  certain  extent  to  the  feeding  of 
horses  for  market, 


CHAPTER  VI 

Does  Live  Stock  Pay? 

All  live  stock  is  not  profitable.  It  does  not  re- 
quire careful  observation  and  wide  experience  to 
demonstrate  the  truth  of  this  statement.  Hundreds 
of  thousands  of  farm  animals  in  the  United  States 
are  kept  at  a  loss.  This  is  wholly  unnecessary. 
If  judgment  is  used  in  selecting  breeding  stock,  if 
common  sense  is  employed  in  handling  and  feeding 
it,  there  is  no  excuse  for  unprofitable  animals  any- 
where. Occasionally  an  animal  becomes  unprofit- 
able through  sickness  or  age.  Then  the  thing  to  do 
is  to  get  rid  of  it  without  hesitancy.  The  great 
trouble  to  date  has  been,  first,  a  lack  of  information 
as  to  just  what  a  profitable  animal  is ;  second,  a 
lack  of  inclination  to  dispose  of  unprofitable  stock; 
third,  neglect  or  ignorance  in  feeding  and  handling. 

At  this  day  and  age  of  the  world,  there  is  ab- 
solutely no  excuse  for  lack  of  information  concern- 
ing farm  live  stock.  There  are  enough  successful 
and  practical  breeders  in  the  country  to  prove  what 
types  are  most  profitable,  so  that  anyone  so  dis- 
posed may  easily  find  out  what  kind  of  a  horse, 
or  a  cow,  or  a  sheep,  or  a  hog  he  must  keep,  if  he 
desires  to  show  a  profit  on  the  right  side  of  the 
ledger.  Never  before  have  the  agricultural  col- 
leges and  experiment  stations  done  so  much  along 
these  lines.  This  information  is  available  in  bul- 
letin and  book  form  or  can  be  obtained  by  visit- 
ing successful  stock  breeders,  attending  agricul- 
tural meetings,  etc.  To  neglect  this  source  of  in- 
formation is  a  decided  weakness  and  should  not  be 
tolerated, 


DOES  LIVE  STOCK  PAY?  69 

Lack  of  inclination  to  dispose  of  unprofitable 
stock  is  a  more  serious  problem,  for  if  farmers  with 
the  information  at  hand  refuse  to  avail  themselves 
of  it,  there  is  no  means  of  compelling  them  to  do  it. 
The  average  of  intelligence,  however,  is  becoming 
higher  and  higher  on  the  American  farm,  so  that 
this  problem  will  shortly  solve  itself.  Further  than 
this,  it  has  been  demonstrated  so  clearly  that  un- 
profitable animals  are  a  serious  detriment  to 
American  agriculture  that  no  wide-awake  farmer 
will  tolerate  them.  Get  rid  of  the  unprofitable  herd 
as  soon  as  possible.  Do  not  breed  from  such  stock 
and  unprofitable  animals  will  soon  disappear. 
Fatten  the  unprofitable  cow,  sheep  or  hog  immedi- 
ately and  get  it  out  of  the  way.  An  unprofitable 
dairy  cow  may  have  to  be  sold  at  a  small  figure, 
but  the  thing  to  do  is  to  fatten  her  and  send  her  to 
the  slaughterhouse  without  delay. 

Probably  one  of  the  greatest  sources  of  loss  by 
unprofitable  live  stock  is  keeping  dairy  cows  that 
do  not  return  enough  in  the  way  of  production  to 
pay  for  their  keep.  Before  the  advent  of  the  Bab- 
cock  test  and  the  schemes  for  analyzing  and  valu- 
ing feeds,  there  might  have  been  some  excuse  for 
not  knowing  just  what  the  dairy  cow  was  worth 
from  year  to  year.  With  all  these  devices,  how- 
ever, it  is  now  easily  possible  to  determine  just 
how  much  a  cow  eats  during  a  given  period,  deter- 
mine its  cost,  and  then  compare  the  cost  of  feed 
and  handling  with  the  return  from  the  pail  for  a 
few  weeks  or  a  few  months  and  you  will  know  what 
the  cow  is  worth  to  you  for  the  year.  Those  that 
do  not  produce  at  least  $10  to  $15  above  the  cost  of 
production  should  be  disposed  of  immediately.  No 
one  should  be  satisfied  with  a  herd  that  does  not  net 
him  between  $35  and  $50  per  head  per  year  above 


7O  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

all  expenses.  Recent  tests  in  various  dairy  sections 
of  the  United  States  have  shown  that  in  many  cases 
four  cows  were  not  producing  as  much  net  profit 
as  two  should. 

Dairy  farming  always  will  be  the  most  profitable 
branch  of  American  agriculture,  as  long  as  it  is 
intelligently  handled.  A  dairy  farmer  has  a  small 
manufacturing  plant  on  his  own  place.  There  is 
the  raw  material  in  the  way  of  feeds  which  enter 
into  the  finished  product,  such  as  milk  or  butter. 
The  by-products  are  retained  on  the  farm  for  feed- 
ing stock  and  enriching  the  soil.  If  cows  of  a  high 
grade  are  kept,  there  is  absolutely  no  question  as 
to  the  final  outcome,  but  the  dairy  cannot  be 
profitably  run  unless  all  cows  are  paying  their  way 
from  the  start. 

PROFITS    ON   HIGH   PRICE   LAND 

The  matter  of  profitable  live  stock  is  becoming 
of  increasing  importance  with  the  advance  of  land 
values.  When  land  was  worth  from;  $20  to  $50 
per  acre,  when  corn  could  be  had  for  25  cents  per 
bushel  and  oats  at  20  cents,  when  grass  could  be 
had  on  the  range  or  on  land  that  was  not  costly, 
the  proposition  was  not  so  serious.  Of  course, 
profits  were  correspondingly  small,  but  the  amount 
of  capital  invested  was  also  small.  With  the  pass- 
ing of  the  years,  however,  all  prices  have  advanced, 
so  that  today  $200  an  acre  land  in  the  corn  belt  is 
common.  The  dairyman  must  pay  50  to  60  cents 
per  bushel  for  his  corn  and  30  to  40  cents  and  some- 
times more  for  his  oats.  His  grass  is  grown  on 
land  that  in  many  cases  is  just  as  valuable  as  cul- 
tivated areas.  Concentrated  feed  is  also  high,  and 
so  it  comes  about  that  the  scrub  must  go.  The 


DOES   LIVE   STOCK  PAY?  71 

animal  that  will  not  mature  quickly,  will  not  breed 
well,  will  not  produce  large  quantities  of  milk  con- 
taining a  high  percentage  of  butterfat,  is  an  unprofit- 
able proposition.  Scrub  stock  is  unsatisfactory  in 
more  ways  than  one.  Uniformity  cannot  be  se- 
cured, early  maturity  is  impossible,  the  maximum 
utilization  of  feed  cannot  be  secured,  so  that  the 
only  possible  way  out  of  the  difficulty  is  for  the 
modern  farmer  to  make  up  his  mind  to  keep  nothing 
but  superior  animals. 

This  is  not  as  difficult  a  proposition  as  one  would 
at  first  suppose.  It  is  not  beyond  the  means  of 
any  farmer  to  start  and  build  up  a  profitable  herd 
in  any  branch  of  live  stock.  Of  course,  I  do  not 
advise  every  man  to  spend  a  lot  of  money  in  start- 
ing a  pure-bred  herd,  buying  high  price  animals, 
but  a  profitable  working  herd  may  be  built  up  with- 
out very  much  expense.  Take,  for  example,  dairy 
cows.  If  you  already  have  a  herd  of  20  cows,  test 
these  carefully  and  retain  only  those  that  pay  their 
board.  Replace  the  ones  disposed  of  by  purchas- 
ing good,  vigorous,  thrifty,  prolific  cows  of  known 
value.  Then  buy  a  pure-bred  bull  of  good  in- 
dividuality. When  the  calves  come,  retain  only 
those  which  give  promise  of  rapid  growth  and 
early  maturity.  When  they  come  into  milking, 
test  them  at  once,  and  if  they  do  not  come  up  to  the 
standard,  throw  them  out.  Decide  on  what  breed 
you  like  and  buy  a  bull  of  that  breed.  If  you  want 
to  keep  Jerseys  get  good  Jersey  cows,  or  at  least 
a  good  grade,  and  keep  a  first-class  Jersey  bull. 
In  four  or  five  years  you  will  have  a  herd  of  cows 
that  cannot  fail  to  return  a  profit. 

With  horses  it  is  even  easier.  Buy  up  as  many 
roomy,  thrifty  mares  as  you  want.  They  need  not 
be  pure-bred  animals,  but  see  that  each  individual 


72  PROFITABLE   STOCK    RAISING 

is  a  good  one.  Then  buy  a  stallion,  or  secure  the 
use  of  one  that  is  pure-bred,  that  comes  from  a  line 
of  ancestors  noted  for  excellence.  Dispose  of  the 
colts  that  are  not  satisfactory  and  in  a  few  years 
you  will  have  horses  that  will  increase  your  bank 
account  right  along.  The  grade  mares  may  gradu- 
ally be  replaced  by  pure  breds,  if  you  want  a  herd  of 
this  kind. 

The  sheep  problem  is  still  easier.  There  is  no 
trouble  at  all  in  keeping  up  a  lot  of  grade  ewes  that 
will  breed  you  first-class  lambs.  Be  sure  that  you 
have  a  pure-bred  ram  at  the  head  and  never  vary 


IOWA-  HOG   HOUSE 

from  this.  Dispose  of  the  ewes  as  they  get  old,  or 
as  they  become  unprofitable  from  any  other  cause. 
Do  not  hesitate  about  this — fatten  them  and  sell 
them.  Keep  only  the  best  and  in  a  little  while  you 
will  have  a  working  flock  of  sheep  that  is  up  to 
standard.  With  sheep  you  have  not  only  mutton, 
but  wool.  Every  farmer,  or,  at  least,  every  farm, 
can  profitably  keep  a  small  flock,  to  utilize  waste 
feeds,  keep  down  weeds  and  bring  in  money  with 
a  regularity  that  will  be  surprising. 

The  hog  problem  is  also  an  easy  one.  If  you  like 
Berkshires,  buy  a  couple  of  sows  and  a  pure-bred 
boar,  then  use  high-grade  individual  sows  to  make 
up  the  balance  of  your  breeding  herd.  In  a  very 


DOES   LIVE   STOCK   PAY?  73 

few  years  you  will  have  pure  Berkshires,  which 
can  be  sold  at  a  profit  for  breeding  purposes,  or 
turned  over  to  the  packer.  It  is  just  as  easy  to  do 
the  same  thing  with  Poland  Chinas,  or  Durocs, 
Chester  Whites,  or  Mule  Foot  hogs,  or  any  other 
of  the  standard  breeds.  Another  thing,  above  all 
others,  to  be  observed,  is  to  get  rid  of  unprofitable 
individuals  and  never,  under  any  circumstances,  use 
an  inferior  or  grade  sire.  Always  have  a  pure-bred 
male  and  see  that  he  is  a  good  one. 

SELECTING  BREEDING  STOCK 

The  matter  of  intelligently  selecting  breeding 
stock  calls  for  the  nicest  discrimination.  While 
breeding  animals  must  be  pure  bred,  it  does  not 
always  follow  that  a  pedigreed  animal  is  a  desirable 
one.  A  lot  of  pedigreed  scrubs  have  done  untold 
damage  to  the  breeding  interests  of  this  country. 
The  individuality  of  the  animal  must  be  considered. 
If  an  animal  has  not  proper  conformation,  if  vigor 
and  constitution  are  not  present,  if  prepotency  does 
not  exist,  there  will  be  no  satisfaction,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  profit. 

The  first  thing  to  do  in  selecting  a  breeding 
animal  is  to  consider  blood  lines  very  carefully. 

Find  out  what  his  ancestors  have  done,  what 
their  records  are  at  shows  and  at  the  block.  If 
you  are  breeding  fast  horses,  look  up  the  racing 
records  of  ancestors  back  as  far  as  possible,  at  least 
eight  to  ten  generations.  If  breeding  beef  cattle 
find  out  the  show  records  of  ancestors  and  how 
popular  they  have  been  with  beef  raisers.  All 
these  things  must  be  given  very  careful  considera- 
tion. If  the  pedigree  is  right  and  if  the  individual 
is  right,  and  if  the  breed  selected  is  your  favorite, 


74  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

the  success  of  the  enterprise  depends,  then,  upon 
careful  feeding  and  handling. 

The  greatest  possible  damage  has  resulted  by  an 
indiscriminate  mixing  of  blood  lines.  It  has  been 
so  fully  demonstrated  that  a  violent  cross  never  can 
result  satisfactorily  that  further  discussion  would 
seem  unnecessary.  Yet,  even  at  this  late  date,  it 
is  not  uncommon  to  see  a  cross  between  a  Short- 
horn and  Holstein,  between  a  Holstein  and  a  Jersey 
— between  Percherons  and  trotters.  The  resulting 
stock  can  never  be  satisfactory  in  the  long  run.  The 
first  cross  may  produce  possibly  a  good  animal,  but 
subsequent  crosses  are  sure  to  result  in  a  lot  of 
animals  lacking  in  uniformity  and  in  characteris- 
tics for  which  one  or  both  lines  have  been  noted. 
If  you  breed  Shorthorns,  stick  to  Shorthorns  and 
the  type  which,  to  your  mind,  is  most  desirable. 
Do  not  cross  Percherons  with  Clydesdales,  for  the 
colt  will  not  make  as  satisfactory  a  horse  as  if 
animals  of  the  same  strain  had  been  mated. 

With  hogs  it  is  not  so  bad,  if  the  first  cross  is  to 
be  sold  to  the  butcher.  A  cross,  for  example,  of  a 
Berkshire  and  a  Poland  China  often  results  in  a 
market  hog  that  can  be  raised  with  satisfaction  and 
sold  with  profit.  To  maintain  your  herd,  however, 
you  must  always  have  some  pure-bred  animals,  as 
well  as  animals  of  some  distinct  standard  breed. 
From  these  you  can  maintain  your  herd  and  re- 
plenish your  breeding  stock.  If,  after  this  has  been 
done,  you  care  to  experiment  with  hogs  intended 
for  the  block,  possibly  some  good  results  may  be 
secured.  It  is  a  pretty  safe  proposition,  however, 
to  stick  to  rigid  lines  and  refrain  from  much  cross- 
ing. 

The  only  place  where  a  pure-bred  sire  can  be 
used  without  regard  to  the  problems  above  enumer- 


DOES   LIVE   STOCK   PAY?  75 

ated  is  when  you  are  grading  up  your  herd,  or  when 
you  are  breeding  for  a  good  working  herd,  without 
any  regard  to  developing  pure  stock,  or  securing 
"high  prices  for  a  pure-bred  animal.  If  you  have 
for  instance,  a  lot  of  good  individual  cows  of  vari- 
ous breeds  and  crosses,  the  use  of  a  pure-bred  bull 
will  give  you  meat  animals  that  may.be  raised  and 
disposed  of  at  a  profit.  The  same  is  true  of  sheep 
and  hogs,  that  is,  building  up  a  working  herd  and 
not  raising  breeding  stock.  Too  much  emphasis 
cannot  be  placed  upon  this  matter  for  as  the  years 
go  by  and  as  conditions  change,  it  is  more  and  more 
important  to  give  careful  thought  to  the  matter  of 
keeping  your  blood  lines  pure. 


CHAPTER  VII 

Basis  of  Profitable  Stock  Breeding 

The  basis  of  all  profitable  live  stock  breeding 
should  be  good  blood  lines.  By  this  is  meant 
animals  of  quality,  with  ancestors  with  a  record. 
It  is  not  sufficient  that  an  animal  should  simply 
have  a  pedigree.  It  must  be  a  good  individual  and 
also  have  ancestors  possessing  like  characteristics. 

With  this  in  mind,  the  next  important  step  is 
discrimination  in  selection.  The  breeder  must  not 
be  influenced  by  fancy,  whim  or  what  are  consid- 
ered strictly  breed  points.  The  fact  that  a  man 
may  much  prefer  a  red  Shorthorn  will  undoubtedly 
influence  his  selection  of  breeding  stock,  but  it 
should  not  determine  his  choice  of  a  moderately 
satisfactory  animal  of  his  favorite  color,  rather  than 
a  very  high  grade  roan,  for  example.  Of  course,  if 
the  breeder  is  not  in  business  from  a  purely  money 
standpoint,  he  can  afford  to  indulge  in  fancies,  al- 
though the  results  will,  in  the  end,  not  be  so  satis- 
factory as  though  he  had  adhered  to  recognized 
and  established  principles  of  breeding.  If  in  con- 
nection with  these  principles  of  selection  he  feeds 
liberally  and  judiciously,  provides  shelter  during 
the  winter  and  shade  during  the  summer,  there  is 
no  reason  why  he  should  not  have  a  profitable  pro- 
ducing herd,  which  will  increase  in  value  from  year 
to  year. 

The  matter  of  selecting  a  breed  is  largely  a  mat- 
ter of  personal  preference  and  environment.  One 

TO 


BASIS  OF  PROFITABLE  STOCK  BREEDING      77 

man  may  have  a  very  marked  preference  for  Short- 
horns. This  may  be  based  on  sentiment,  or  upon 
his  belief  that  Shorthorns  are  the  most  profitable 
cattle.  One  may  be  attracted  by  the  compact  form 
and  beautiful  white  markings  of  the  Hereford.  He 
may  be  convinced  that  Herefords  are  the  best 
animals,  but  a  choice  between  the  Shorthorn  and 
the  Hereford  quite  often  is  determined  by  the  be- 
lief that  Herefords  look  better.  Then,  too,  one 
feeder  may  prefer  the  Angus,  partly  because  they 
are  very  compact  animals,  uniform  in  color,  and, 
of  course,  they  are  high-grade  beef  producing 
animals.  Then,  too,  the  matter  of  environ- 
ment must  also  be  considered.  Herefords 
have  the  reputation  of  being  good  rustlers, 
able  to  take  care  of  themselves  under  rather  ad- 
verse conditions.  For  this  reason  Hereford  cattle 
have  always  been  popular  on  the  range,  where  oc- 
casionally feed  may  be  short  and  weather  condi- 
tions severe.  Angus  cattle  are  considered  best 
adapted  to  the  corn  belt  conditions,  where  rich 
pasture  and  plenty  of  grain  are  always  available. 
Galloways  ought  to  do  well  in  rough,  mountainous 
regions,  because  the  breed  originated  in  very  rocky 
territory  in  Scotland. 

Chester  White  hogs,  for  example,  are  not  consid- 
ered entirely  satisfactory  for  southern  latitudes,  be- 
cause it  is  claimed  they  show  more  of  a  tendency  to 
sun  scald  than  some  of  the  dark  breeds.  Poland 
Chinas  are  exceedingly  popular  in  the  corn  belt, 
because  they  do  especially  well  on  a  ration  consist- 
ing largely  of  corn.  Yorkshires  and  Tamworths 
are  considered  desirable  bacon  hogs  in  Canada,  be- 
cause they  thrive  on  field  peas  and  oats,  barley  and 
other  feeds  which  grow  in  abundance  in  that  region. 

Shire  and  Clydesdale  horses  are  most  popular  in 


78  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

Canada,  because  of  the  preponderance  of  English 
and  Scotch.  This  is  largely  a  sentimental  reason. 
In  the  United  States,  where  sentiment  plays 
a  smaller  part,  the  Percheron  is  probably  the 
most  popular  horse,  because  of  his  activity,  his 
clean  limbs  and  his  value  as  a  general  purpose  beast 
of  burden. 

Rambouillet  and  Merinos  are  popular  on  the 
western  ranges  because  of  their  great  rustling  qual- 
ities and  hardy  constitution. 

Consequently,  because  of  the  great  variety  of 
tastes  and  varying  conditions  of  soil  and  climate, 
there  will  always  be  representatives  of  the  leading 
breeds  of  live  stock,  widely  distributed.  It  makes 
very  little  difference  what  breed  is  chosen,  pro- 
vided it  is  suited  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
purchased.  There  are  excellent  animals  in  all 
breeds,  so  that  if  one  man  prefers  a  Hereford,  an- 
other a  Shorthorn,  and  a  third  a  Galloway,  all  of 
these  breeders  have  a  splendid  chance  to  succeed, 
because  they  believe  thoroughly  in  their  favorite 
types  and  will  build  up  a  profitable  herd. 

SELECTING  BREEDING  ANIMALS 

After  the  blood  lines  are  determined  upon,  after 
the  selection  has  been  carefully  made,  after  the 
breed  has  been  decided  upon,  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that,  after  all,  the  most  important  item  is 
quality.  Quality  is  a  rather  difficult  term  to  de- 
scribe, because  it  has  a  different  meaning  applied 
to  different  purposes.  In  general,  it  means  a  high 
grade  animal,  thrifty,  compact  and  vigorous  in 
every  particular.  Taking  beef  cattle,  there  are  two 
divisions  of  quality.  Generally  speaking,  quality 
means  refinement  of  external  conformation,  as  seen 


BASIS  OF  PROFITABLE  STOCK  BREEDING      79 

in  the  head,  form,  bones,  muscle  and  smoothness 
of  outline.  It  is  affected  by  nothing  so  much  as  by 
breeding.  It  is  not  often  found  in  the  plainer  bred 
steer,  but  is  generally  characteristic  of  a  well-bred 
animal.  The  possession  of  general  quality  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  in  selecting  feeders.  It  is 
difficult  to  explain;  its  determination  comes  largely 
by  experience.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  an  old 
cattleman  can  often  discover  this  form  better  than 
one  who  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  live  stock,  but 
has  not  had  large  experience  in  selecting  the 
feeders. 

The  second  quality  is  called  handling  quality. 
This  indicates  that  the  animal  is  a  good  feeder. 
This  is  determined  by  the  feel  of  the  skin.  To  be 
a  good  handler,  the  hair  must  be  of  medium  fine- 
ness and  the  whole  animal  have  the  appearance 
of  good  breeding. 

The  farmer  must  be  familiar  with  the  leading 
characteristics  of  the  different  types.  To  illustrate 
this,  a  consideration  of  one  type  in  each  of  the  gen- 
eral classes  of  farm  animals  will  be  enumerated. 

CONFORMATION   AND    CHARACTERISTICS 

As  the  draft  horse  is  probably  the  most  profit- 
able for  the  general  farmer,  a  somewhat  detailed 
enumeration  of  desirable  characteristics  will  be 
given.  The  general  formation  of  the  draft  horse 
includes  a  heavy  frame,  a  compact  and  blocky  body, 
a  comparative  shortness  and  strength  of  limb,  all 
these  being  in  proportion.  The  weight  is  a  most 
important  consideration  in  a  draft  horse.  A  draft 
animal  in  fair  condition  at  maturity  ought  to  weigh 
anywhere  from  1,500  to  2,000  pounds.  The  height 
is  not  so  material,  provided  the  necessary  weight  is 
present.  Quality  and  substance,  as  shown  in  hard 


8O  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

bone  and  joint,  should  be  prominent.  The  hair 
should  be  fine  and  silky,  the  bones  smooth,  the 
joints  neat  and  the  lower  limbs  free  from  superflu- 
ous flesh.  The  action  of  the  draft  horse  is  par- 
ticularly important  in  America.  In  the  old  country, 
where  speed  is  not  so  important,  the  heavy  and 
clumsy  draft  horse  answers  very  well  for  hard 
work,  but  here  even  farmers  desire  action,  and  this 
is  especially  required  by  expressmen  and  others 
using  large  numbers  of  draft  horses.  Feet  must 
be  picked  up  with  a  snap  and  carried  clear  of  the 
ground.  High  knee  action  is  not  essential,  but  a 
strong,  steady  movement  of  both  knee  and  hock, 
without  suddenness,  is  very  important.  The  head 
should  be  lean,  but  not  out  of  proportion  to  the 
body,  having  plenty  of  breadth  between  the  eyes. 
The  neck  must  be  strong  and  muscular,  with  a 
slight  arch.  The  shoulders  should  not  be  long  and 
sloping  as  with  light  horses,  but  more  upright, 
being  well  set  in  the  back.  The  chest  should  be 
full  and  deep,  indicating  large  capacity  of  the  vital 
organs.  The  knee  must  be  broad,  the  cannon  bone 
round,  with  the  tendons  extending  back  to  back,  so 
that  the  attachment  is  deep  and  strong.  The  pas- 
tern, which  is  an  important  part  of  the  leg,  should 
be  fairly  long  and  perfectly  smooth  and  free  from 
extra  flesh.  The  feet  ought  to  be  large,  heavy, 
dense,  preferably  black  in  color  and  the  frog  large. 
The  body  should  be  short  on  top,  long  below,  broad 
along  the  back,  with  ribs  strongly  attached. 

The  hock  requires  most  careful  study,  for  this 
joint  is  the  seat  of  many  troubles.  As  the  horse 
stands  in  a  natural  position  the  hock  should  be 
straight  and  true,  viewed  from  behind,  showing  no 
evidence  of  weakness.  Where  the  hock  holds  a 
true  position,  the  hind  feet  also  stand  true,  neither 


BASIS  OF  PROFITABLE  STOCK  BREEDING      8l 

toeing  in  nor  out.  If  a  joint  is  too  fleshy,  puffiness 
is  apt  to  occur,  or  a  form  of  spavin  is  apt  to  exist. 

Beef  cattle,  when  of  correct  type,  show  a  dis- 
tinctly meat-producing  formation.  The  animal  is 
broad  of  back  from  shoulder  points  to  hips,  has  a 
wide,  deep  body,  short  and  somewhat  thick  neck,  and 
rather  a  broad,  thick,  fleshy  hindquarter.  Viewed 
from  one  side  the  top  and  bottom  lines  of  the  body 
run  nearly  parallel,  with  the  back  quite  level. 
Cattle  of  this  type  are  commonly  referred  to  as 
blocky,  indicating  compactness  of  form.  The  head 
must  have  a  strong,  broad  muzzle,  indicating 
superior  grazing  and  feeding  qualities.  The  nos- 
trils should  be  broad,  forehead  broad  and  reason- 
ably full,  the  horns  refined,  ears  neat  and  attached 
to  the  head  without  coarseness. 

The  breast  and  chest  are  most  important  in  beef 
animals.  The  breast  should  be  carried  well  forward 
and  be  broad  and  full  in  the  bosom.  The  chest, 
which  lies  between  the  shoulders  and  just  back  of 
them,  should  be  full  at  the  crops,  showing  much 
spring  of  ribs,  and  also  well  filled  out  in  the  front 
flanks.  Too  much  depression  behind  the  shoulders, 
or  a  narrow,  contracted  lower  chest  indicates  lack 
of  constitution.  The  front  legs  should  have  wide, 
muscular  attachments.  They  should  be  short, 
coming  straight  down,  viewed  from  the  front 
or  side.  Closeness  about  the  knees  indicate  a  nar- 
row chest.  Fine  bone  and  smooth  joints  are  an 
evidence  of  superior  quality. 

The  back  of  beef  cattle  carries  an  immense  weight. 
It  must,  therefore,  be  strong.  All  the  high  price 
meats  on  the  carcass  are  found  on  the  back,  so  that 
it  is  important  that  the  ribs  be  well  arched,  to  carry 
as  much  of  this  high  price  product  as  possible.  The 
hindquarters,  viewed  from  behind,  should  be  thick, 


82  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

coming  down  perpendicularly  on  the  outside,  where 
the  thighs  naturally  narrow. 

Quality  in  a  beef  animal  is  shown  by  a  fine  bone ; 
moderately  fine  hair;  a  mellow,  moderately  loose 
skin;  medium  size,  well  set  ears,  and  horns  of 
moderate  size  and  fine  texture.  Coarse  bone,  rough 
joints,  long  legs,  scraggy  horns,  indicate  lack  of 
quality.  The  skin  is  a  most  important  indication 
of  quality.  Taken  in  the  hands  over  the  ribs  it 
must  seem  mellow  and  pliable  to  the  touch,  being 
easily  grasped  and  stretched.  Thin  skin  is  undesir- 
able in  a  beef  animal,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
very  thick  skin  is  to  be  avoided. 

The  ability  to  put  on  flesh  evenly  is  of  great 
importance  in  the  beef  animal.  The  increase  must 
be  uniformly  distributed  all  over  the  body.  This 
can  be  determined  by  passing  the  palm  of  the  hand 
along  the  back  and  shoulders  or  sides.  It  should 
find  no  evidence  of  irregular  covering,  with  poor 
spots  in  one  place  and  heavy  fleshing  in  others. 

DAIRY    CHARACTERISTICS 

Dairy  cattle  are  entirely  different  from  beef 
cattle.  The  body  is  not  so  thick,  there  is  less 
strength  of  back,  the  thighs  are  narrow  and  the 
neck  slender.  The  triple  wedge  form  is  associated 
with  the  dairy  cow.  Viewed  from,  one  side,  she 
shows  a  less  depth  of  body  in  front  than  behind. 
She  gradually  widens  from  the  breast  to  a  point 
of  the  hips  and  hindquarters.  Looking  down  the 
back  at  the  withers,  the  form  widens  out  like  a 
wedge  toward  the  middle  of  the  body.  Many 
notable  dairy  cows  possess  this  wedge  form  in  a 
striking  degree,  but,  of  course,  exceptions  occa- 
sionally are  made. 

Fleshiness    of    the    dairy    cow    is    objectionable, 


BASIS  OF  PROFITABLE  STOCK  BREEDING      83 

except  possibly  where  the  animals'  are  young. 
The  head  of  the  dairy  animal  must  be  lean, 
with  broad  muzzle,  short  nose,  large  nostrils  and 
dish  face.  The  ears  must  be  thin  and  pointed.  The 
horns  must  be  very  fine,  without  any  indication  of 
coarseness.  The  neck  is  long  and  muscular,  with  the 
exception  of  bulls,  in  which  it  is  strong  and  heavily 
muscled.  Shoulders  should  incline  at  a  good  angle 
well  into  the  back.  The  withers  should  be  sharp 
and  narrow. 

The  breast  of  dairy  cattle  does  not  show  so  great 
width  as  in  the  beef  type  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
chest.  The  ribs  must  be  well  sprung,  to  provide 
large  capacity  for  the  consumption  and  utilization 
of  feeds.  Dairy  cows  with  very  short  ribs  are  poor 
feeders  and  usually  possess  defective  constitutions. 
The  front  legs  should  be  straight. 

The  back  of  the  dairy  cow  usually  shows  some 
droop  from  shoulder  to  hip  line.  This,  however, 
must  not  become  excessive,  as  a  strong,  well-sus- 
tained back,  with  but  little  depression,  is  to  be 
preferred  to  the  sway  back. 

The  udder  of  the  dairy  cow  is  a  most  important 
part,  in  that  it  indicates  capacity  of  producing  milk. 
The  skin  of  the  udder  should  be  soft  and  the  hair 
should  be  fine.  Large  cows  should  have  larger 
udders  than  small  cows,  and  the  animal  of  from 
900  to  1,000  pounds  in  weight  should,  at  six  years 
old,  have  an  udder  that  will  yield  at  least  40  pounds 
of  milk  a  day.  The  milk  veins  which  convey  blood 
through  the  udder  are  usually  regarded  as  indica- 
tions of  a  cow's  general  capacity  to  produce  milk. 
On  good  dairy  cows  the  veins  are  very  large,  tor- 
tuous and  prominent.  The  milk  wells  or  openings 
admitting  the  milk  veins  into  the  under  part  of  the 
belly  should  be  large.  Large  milk  wells  and  prom- 


84 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 


inent  milk  veins  are  a  pretty  safe  guide  as  to  the 
productive  capacity  of  the  dairy  cow. 

HOGS    AND    MUTTON    SHEEP 

While  it  is  very  difficult  to  indicate  the  most 
striking  features  of  sheep,  in  a  general  way  the 
mutton  type  will  be  taken  as  an  example.  In  gen- 
eral, the  mutton  conformation  of  the  sheep  has 
many  of  the  features  of  the  beef  type  in  cattle. 
The  body  must  be  compact,  the  form  blocky,  the 
head  and  neck  short,  the  back  broad  and  level,  hind- 


ELEVATION   OF  HOG  HOUSE 


quarters  full  and  heavy  and  body  deep.  With  the 
mutton  breeds  the  matter  of  flesh  production  is  of 
first  consideration,  consequently  the  form  that  will 
produce  the  largest  percentage  of  the  most  desir- 
able cuts  is  the  one  to  be  aimed  at.  The  shoulder 
is  valuable  for  mutton  and  should  be  neatly  placed 


BASIS  OF  PROFITABLE  STOCK  BREEDING      85 

and  not  too  prominent  at  the  top.  This  entire  part 
must  be  smoothly  covered  with  flesh.  The  back 
and  loins  contain  valuable  cuts,  so  that  the  strength, 
width  and  thickness  are  essential  at  all  times.  The 
body,  to  have  ample  capacity,  must,  of  course,  have 
strongly  arched  and  deep  ribs.  The  thigh  should 
be  thick  from  behind  and  very  full  and  low.  The 
entire  upper  thigh  should  be  heavily  covered  with 
flesh,  as  this  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  mutton 
cuts.  The  chest,  of  course,  is  most  important,  as  it 
contains  the  vital  organs.  It  should  have  both 
thickness  and  depth.  The  withers  must  be  wide 
and  smoothly  covered.  As  with  the  beef  types  of 
cattle,  the  flesh  of  the  mutton  type  of  sheep  must 


FLOOR    PLAN    OF  KOG,  HOUSE. 

be    smooth    and    uniformly    distributed,    free    from 
wads  of  fat  or  patchiness. 

The  wool  of  mutton  sheep  ranges  in  length  from 
that  of  the  Merino  to  ten  or  possibly  more  inches. 
The  fleece  does  not  cover  the  body  as  compactly 
as  in  the  fine  wool  breeds.  The  fiber  ranges  from 
very  fine  to  coarse.  A  bright  fiber  with  a  brilliant 
luster  is  very  desirable.  The  entire  body  should 
be  covered  with  fleece.  The  oil  or  yolk  should  be 


86  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

of  moderate  abundance,  thus  keeping  the  wool  in 
a  healthy  condition. 

Probably  no  animal  on  the  farm  will  make  money 
more  rapidly  than  the  hog.  Hogs  are  easily  kept, 
large  litters  are  produced  that  can  be  sent  to  mar- 
ket at  nine  months,  thus  enabling  the  farmer  to 
turn  his  money  quick.  There  are  many  varieties 
of  hogs  in  the  United  States,  but  the  most  desir- 
able type  of  any  breed,  as  the  animal  is  kept  solely 
for  pork,  is  the  one  that  possesses  compactness  of 
form,  breadth  of  back,  large  hams,  strength  of  limb 
and  a  capacity  to  fatten  rapidly  and  mature  early. 
The  American  desires  a  type  of  hog  that  carries  a 
large  amount  of  fat.  It  represents  the  extreme  type 
of  meat  production  and,  of  course,  is  the  most 
popular  in  the  corn  states.  In  other  countries  this 
type  of  hog  is  not  looked  upon  with  favor,  as  a 
bacon  animal  is  preferred,  but  here  bacon  hogs  are 
not  very  numerous  and  under  the  conditions  exist- 
ing in  nearly  every  part  of  the  country,  even  the 
bacon  hogs  begin  to  take  on  the  fat-producing  form 
after  they  have  been  bred  for  a  number  of  years. 
It  may  be  taken  for  granted,  then,  as  a  rule,  that 
the  hog  popular  in  the  corn  belt  is  true  to  American 
type.  In  general,  a  profitable  pork-producing  hog 
should  be  compact  and  big  of  body,  with  a  short, 
well-formed  head,  broad  back,  large,  heavy  hams, 
short  legs,  plenty  of  quality,  as  shown  by  an  abun- 
dance of  fine  hair,  strong  bones  and  joints.  In 
disposition  the  animal  should  be  mild,  so  that  he 
will  fatten  easily. 

The  size  is  largely  determined  by  the  demands 
of  the  market.  At  some  markets  hogs  ranging 
from  220  to  230  pounds  are  most  popular,  while  at 
others  considerably  heavier  ones  bring  the  best 
prices.  It  is  pretty  hard  to  breed  for  the  ones 


BASIS  OF  PROFITABLE  STOCK  BREEDING      87 

most  in  demand,  because  of  the  fluctuations  in 
standards,  consequently  a  moderate-sized  animal 
that  matures  early  will  probably  in  the  long  run 
be  the  most  profitable. 

In  hogs  the  head  is  an  important  indication  of 
quality.  It  is  short  and  broad.  Excessive  fat 
around  the  eyes  is  undesirable.  The  neck  should 
not  be  long,  but  broad  and  strong.  A  wide  breast 
and  deep,  capacious  chest  indicate  constitution. 
The  shoulder  should  fit  smoothly  to  the  body, 
showing  no  roughness  or  openness  at  the  top.  A 
smooth,  broad,  evenly  fleshed  shoulder  is  most  de- 
sirable, from  the  market  point  of  view.  The  back 
and  loins  are  very  important.  The  ribs  must  be 
well  sprung  and  the  loins  broad  and  compact.  The 
width  of  the  back  should  be  carried  the  entire 
length,  from  shoulder  to  hips.  A  drooping  back 
indicates  weakness.  The  ham  is  one  of  the  highest 
priced  parts  of  the  hog,  and  must  be  fully  developed. 
A  high-class  ham  viewed  from  behind  is  thick  at 
the  edge  and  low  at  twist.  From  the  side  the 
relative  length  is  long  from  hip  joint  to  the  lower 
corner  of  the  ham. 

The  fleshing  quality  of  the  ham  is  most  important. 
The  flesh  must  be  evenly  distributed  and  the  back 
and  sides,  shoulders,  rump  and  hams  must  be  uni- 
formly covered  with  meat  that  feels  mellow  to  the 
touch,  yet  firm.  Smoothness  of  covering  is  very 
essential.  Wrinkles  are  objectionable  and  indicate 
lack  of  quality  in  a  hog. 

The  disposition  of  the  hog  should  be  quiet.  The 
Poland  China  is  a  notable  example  of  this  phleg- 
matic character,  and  it  is  to  this  characteristic,  to  a 
large  extent  at  any  rate,  that  its  great  fattening 
ability  is  due.  Active,  restless  hogs  do  not  put  on 
flesh. 


88  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

Each  particular  type  of  farm  animal  has,  of 
course,  its  distinctive  characteristics,  which  cannot 
be  presented  in  this  connection.  Enough  has  been 
said,  however,  to  indicate  what  must  be  looked  for 
in  certain  general  types.  If  all  these  things  are 
given  consideration  and  carefully  noted,  live  stock 
raising  will  be  a  success,  provided  the  farmers  see 
they  are  fed  economically.  There  is  a  vast  difference 
in  individuals  as  to  the  utilization  of  feed.  Some 
animals  will  eat  sparingly  and  always  be  fat. 
Others  will  consume  feed  ravenously  and  will  never 
fatten.  When  selecting  breeding  animals,  as  well 
as  feeders,  this  property  should  be  given  careful 
attention,  as  it  is  most  important,  the  profit  end  con- 
sidered. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Principles  of  Breeding 

The  object  of  breeding  is  to  increase  the  number 
of  animals  and  to  improve  the  herd.  That  is  as  far 
as  the  matter  need  go  with  the  ordinary  farmer. 
Of  course,  with  the  scientific  breeder,  the  additional 
object  of  the  origination  of  new  varieties  offers  a 
fascinating  field.  For  the  general  farmer,  however, 
the  two  objects  named  should  be  the  ones  given  the 
bulk  of  attention.  Throughout  the  United  States 
the  improvement  of  the  herd  or  flock  is  of  the 
greatest  possible  importance.  Very  few  farmers 
can  afford  to  start  with  an  entire  outfit  of  pure-bred 
animals,  both  male  and  female.  Wealthy  people 
and  those  who  plan  to  make  the  breeding  of  live 
stock  their  exclusive  life  work,  probably  can  afford 
to  do  this,  but  for  the  ordinary  stockman,  for  the 
general  farmer,  for  the  man  who  wants  to  keep  farm 
animals  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  his  land,  the 
matter  of  starting  with  a  pure-bred,  high-grade  in- 
dividual sire  and  selecting  good  individual  females 
from  common  stock,  is  the  one  that  will,  in  the  end, 
be  the  most  profitable.  Of  course,  the  end  is  a 
purely  commercial  one,  but  the  great  majority  of 
stockmen  must  consider  the  money  side  and  largely 
disregard  the  sentimental  features. 

The  above  being  true,  grading — that  is,  the  mating 
of  a  common  or  unimproved  parent  with  a  highly 
bred  one — is  the  most  satisfactory  method.  One 
pure-bred  bull  with  a  herd  of  20  cows  gives  a  crop 
of  calves  that  are  half  bloods.  In  other  words,  this 
is  a  case  where  the  bull  is  half  the  herd.  If  a  pure- 

89 


9O  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

bred  cow  is  mated  with  a  scrub  bull,  only  one 
animal  is  a  half  breed.  In  the  case  noted,  20  of 
them  are  half  blood.  This  shows  the  extreme  neces- 
sity of  having  a  pure-bred  sire.  By  constantly 
using  a  pure-bred  sire,  it  can  be  easily  shown  that 
the  sixth  generation  contains  98.44  per  cent  of 
purity  and  only  1.56  per  cent  of  unimproved  blood. 
This  sixth  generation  is  practically  pure-bred.  The 
unimproved  blood  becomes  insignificant  and  rapidly 
disappears.  This  is  why,  in  the  early  days  of  a 
breed,  the  sixth  or  seventh  generation  is  considered 
eligible  to  record.  It  must  be  remembered  that  if 
grades  are  used,  absolutely  no  progress  is  made. 
For  example,  if  half  bloods  are  bred  to  half  bloods, 
half  bloods  will  be  produced  indefinitely.  The 
progress  in  grading  ceases  as  soon  as  the  pure-bred 
sire  is  discontinued. 

It  is,  therefore  immensely  important,  in  fact,  al- 
most a  violation  of  one  of  the  cardinal  principles  of 
live  stock  husbandry,  to  use  anything  but  a  pure- 
bred sire.  Those  not  thoroughly  informed  are  apt 
to  be  misled  by  the  fact  that  occasionally  a  half 
blood  sire  is  a  splendid  individual  and  to  all  out- 
ward appearances  is  superior  to  many  pure-bred 
males.  With  the  above  in  mind,  however,  it  can 
be  seen  how  exceedingly  foolish  it  is  to  breed  from 
anything  but  an  animal  of  pure  blood  if  improve- 
ment is  expected  and  desired. 

For  practical  purposes,  many  grades  are  just  as 
satisfactory  and  as  profitable  as  pure-bred  animals. 
This  is  the  cheering  thought  where  herd  improve- 
ment is  desired  by  people  of  moderate  means. 
Anyone  visiting  central  live  stock  markets  knows 
thai  the  bulk  of  the  offspring  of  fat  stock  is  grades. 
Grades  can  be  produced  cheaply  when  fattened  and 
disposed  of  at  the  slaughterhouses.  The  meat  is. 


1'Kl  \CIIM.I-S    OK    I'.KKKDINCl  QI 

however,  practically  as  good  and  there  is  just  as 
much  of  it  as  if  the  animals  were  pure  bred. 
Consequently,  to  any  but  the  man  who  is  raising 
foundation  stock  and  to  the  man  who  is  a  sen- 
timentalist, the  grade  answers  admirably,  but  do 
not  use  a  iM-ade  sire. 

CROSSING  EXPLAINED 

Crossing  is  the  mating  of  two  different,  distinct 
races,  breeds  or  varieties  in  hope  of  securing  an 
animal  that  will  be  of  high  character.  This  form 
is  adapted  only  to  the  production  of  new  strains 
and  should  be  handled  with  a  great  deal  of  care, 
and  only  I>\  skillful  breeders.  Practically  the  only 
cross  that  can  be  employed  on  the  general  farm  is 
that  used  in  the  production  of  the  mule.  The  prin- 
ciple's of  mule  raising  are  so  thoroughly  understood 
and  so  clearly  set  forth  in  another  chapter  of  this 
book  that  no  argument  need  be  presented  here  in 
their  favor.  Outside  of  that,  crossing  is  a  pretty 
serious  operation  and  is  apt  to  result  in  disappoint- 
ment. There  is  danger  of  reversion  to  the  original 
type  and  the  production  of  unprofitable  animals  to 
so  great  an  extent  that,  with  the  single  exception 
referred  to,  crossing  may  very  wisely  be  avoided 
by  any  except  those  thoroughly  informed.  The 
mating  of  cat  lie,  for  example,  of  widely  divergent 
type,  such  as  the  Shorthorn  and  the  Jersey,  is  bad 
practice.  You  may  get  neither  a  good  beef 
animal  nor  a  good  dairy  animal.  Size  is  lost  and 
lack  of  uniformity  is  sure  to  result.  In  picking  out 
feeders  in  any  community,  the  man  making  the 
select  ion  will  carefully  avoid  any  animal  that  shows 
sii;ns  of  Jersey  blood.  Not  that  these  crosses  are 
not  frequently  fattened  with  profit,  but  the  care 
and  the  risk  is  too  threat. 


92  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

For  the  purpose  of  perpetuating  certain  desirable 
types  of  animals  within  a  particular  breed,  line  breed- 
ing is  often  practiced.  By  this  is  meant  the  restric- 
tion of  selection  and  mating  to  the  individuals  of  a 
single  line  of  descent.  Breed  improvement,  and 
sometimes  herd  improvement,  makes  it  impossible 
to  confine  selection  to  the  limits  of  the  breed.  How- 
ever, those  who  practice  line  breeding  are  not  so 
much  concerned  in  the  commercial  side  as  in  the 
establishment  of  a  certain  type.  Line  breeding  ex- 
cludes everything  outside  the  approved  type.  It 
necessitates  the  mating  of  animals  similar  in  char- 
acter, purifies  the  pedigree  and  gives  ancestors  an 
opportunity  to  dominate  the  system,  and  while  it 
is  practiced  by  a  number  of  breeders  and  some 
practical  farmers  in  order  to  fix  desirable  character- 
istics, it  is  not  the  common  practice  and  probably 
never  will  be  among  the  general  farmers  and  ordi- 
nary stockmen  in  the  country.  It  has  large  ad- 
vantages and  should  not  be  neglected.  The  chief 
danger  in  line  breeding  is  that  in  the  anxiety  to 
perfect  a  pedigree  and  secure  certain  character- 
istics, breeding  animals  of  inferior  merit  are  often 
used.  A  line-bred  animal  is  valuable  or  dangerous, 
exactly  in  proportion  as  the  individual  has  been  kept 
up  to  grade.  No  other  system  of  breeding,  how- 
ever, has  ever  been  of  as  great  benefit  to  the  live 
stock  interests.  The  only  thing  to  avoid  is  to  be 
sure  that  all  the  animals  used  for  breeding  are 
animals  of  excellent  individuality. 

Another  form  of  herd  improvement  not  thor- 
oughly understood  and  concerning  which  there  has 
been  much  error  is  that  of  inbreeding.  This  means 
that  animals  closely  related  are  mated.  This  form 
is  used  so  that  when  an  animal  of  superior  excel- 
lence appears,  his  or  her  characteristics  are  pre- 


•BBBil 


PRINCIPLES   OF   BREEDING  93 

served  by  breeding  his  descendants.  It  is  possible 
by  this  method  to  secure  the  highest  percentage  of 
blood  of  an  exceptional  individual  and  to  establish 
a  strain  that  will  perpetuate  desirable  character- 
istics. If  persisted  in,  the  outside  blood  disappears 
and  the  pedigree  is  rapidly  enriched.  Inbred 
animals  are  recognized  as  especially  prepotent. 
The  disadvantages  of  inbreeding  are  that  if  an 
animal  possesses  any  undesirable  characteristics, 
these  characteristics,  of  course,  are  apt  to  be  mul- 
tiplied in  the  descendants,  for  good  as  well  as  bad 
features  are  transmitted.  There  have  been  numer- 
ous failures  of  inbreeding  and  these  have  probably 
overshadowed  the  advantages.  A  careful  investi- 
gation shows  that  inbreeding  is  not  necessarily 
harmful,  if  properly  handled.  If  animals  lacking 
in  vigor  and  low  in  fertility  are  excluded,  the  best 
of  results  will  ordinarily  come  from  inbreeding. 
Some  of  the  very  best  and  most  successful  live- 
stock men  in  the  United  States  have  practiced  in- 
breeding, and  are  able  to  show,  at  this  time,  herds 
and  flocks  in  prize  rings,  successful  at  the  heads  of 
herds,  and  approaching,  in  every  way,  the  breeder's 
ideal  of  profitable  live  stock.  Vigor,  of  course,  is 
the  first  proposition  and  fertility  is  a  close  second. 
If  these  two  characteristics  are  looked  out  for,  there 
will  be  very  little  danger  in  inbreeding.  It  is  a 
rather  risky  proposition  to  recommend  it  indiscrim- 
inately to  the  general  farmer,  but  the  principles  are 
perfectly  plain,  so  that  he  can  practice  it  with  profit 
just  as  well  as  his  more  specialized  brother. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  PURE-BRED  SIRE 

With    these    general    principles    of    breeding1    in 
mind,  is  it  not  perfectly  plain  that  it  will  never  do 


94  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

to  ignore  the  pure-bred  sire?  It  will  never  do, 
under  any  circumstances,  to  use  a  sire  that  lacks 
pure  blood  because  he  is  a  splendid  individual.  It 
probably  will  be  all  right  for  the  first  generation 
if  the  animals  are  to  be  disposed  of  for  meat,  but 
even  then  it  is  a  risky  proposition.  He  will  not 
produce  as  uniform  stock  as  a  pure-bred  sire.  The 
progeny  will  not  fatten  as  readily,  nor  mature  as 
uniformly,  so  that  every  farmer  ought  to  make  up 
his  mind  to  use  nothing  but  pure-bred  sires,  no 
matter  what  other  advice  may  be  given  him  or 
what  his  desires  may  be.  In  some  instances,  laws 
have  been  enacted  against  breeding  anything  but 
pure-bred  stallions  and  forbidding  the  standing  of 
a  grade.  Other  states  are  rapidly  taking  up  these 
laws,  and  it  would  be  a  splendid  thing  for  the  live 
stock  interests  if  this  law  could  apply  also  to  cattle, 
sheep  and  hogs. 

If  it  is  admitted  that  the  sire  is  half  the  herd, 
and  the  important  part  of  the  live  stock  industry, 
his  care  becomes  a  matter  of  great  moment.  Be- 
ginning with  calfhood  in  cattle,  he  should  be 
liberally,  yet  judiciously,  fed.  He  should  be  so 
handled  as  to  develop  rapidly  and  completely.  His 
vigor  must  always  be  taken  into  consideration.  He 
must  not  be  overfed,  so  that  his  vitality  will  be 
impaired  in  any  way.  He  must  not  be  kept  too 
fat.  He  must  not  be  fed  exclusively  on  highly 
carbonaceous  foods.  He  must  not  be  confined;  he 
must  be  given  a  liberal  amount  of  exercise,  but  even 
here,  moderation  must  rule.  Of  course,  he  will  be 
started  on  mother's  milk.  This  holds  true  in  the 
cases  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep  or  hogs.  If  the  supply 
is  ample,  no  additional  feed  will  be  needed  for  some 
weeks,  except  that  he  should  be  permitted  to  run 
with  the  mother  on  pasture.  He  will  soon  learn  to 


PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING  95 

nibble  at  the  grass.  A  little  later,  he  can  be  fed  a 
small  amount  of  crushed  oats.  He  must  also  be 
taught,  before  cold  weather  arrives,  to  eat  forage. 
Keep  hay  or  fodder  where  he  can  get  at  it,  and  he 
will  have  acquired  this  without  any  teaching.  It 
is  presumed  that  on  the  ordinary  farm  the  young 
stock  come  in  the  spring,  so  that  his  supply  of  feed 
during  the  summer  will  be  the  milk,  the  grass  and 
the  little  grain  that  may  be  supplied.  He  will  get 
plenty  of  exercise  in  the  pasture,  the  only  precau- 
tion necessary  being  that  he  be  protected  from  flies 
during  the  hot,  dry  weather  of  August  and  early 
September.  This  is  accomplished  by  providing  a 
dark  shed,  to  which  the  dam  and  the  young  animal 
may  resort  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  As  fall 
approaches  and  cold  weather  begins  to  appear,  some 
confinement  will  undoubtedly  be  necessary  and  the 
young  animal  will  have  to  be  weaned.  Begin  feed- 
ing gradually  and  insist  on  the  future  herd  header 
running  in  the  open  as  much  as  possible.  Nothing 
is  better  than  an  open  shed,  adjacent  to  a  pasture. 
Feed  alfalfa  hay  and  oats,  to  which  a  little  corn 
may  be  added,  providing  this  corn  does  not  result 
in  an  abundance  of  fat.  Keep  him  in  a  good, 
healthy  growing  condition  without  becoming  over- 
fat.  Every  day  during  the  winter  let  the  young 
animal  run  out,  provided  the  weather  is  not 
stormy.  He  is  a  good  deal  better  off  in  the  open 
air,  where  he  can  get  exercise,  than  confined  in  a 
stall.  He  must,  however,  always  be  provided  with 
a  warm  stable  during  cold,  wet,  stormy  or  snowy 
weather.  This  is  particularly  important  with  sheep, 
but  should  not  be  neglected  with  cattle,  horses  or 
hogs.  The  second  summer  give  him  all  the  blue 
grass  pasture  he  wants.  Let  him  have  a  little 
clover;  feed  small  amounts  of  oats  all  during  the 


96  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

season,  so  that  he  will  continue  to  grow.  If  he 
can  nibble  at  a  manger  full  of  tame  hay — alfalfa  or 
some  of  the  clovers  are  best,  but  timothy  will  do  no 
harm — he  will  grow  more  rapidly  than  if  main- 
tained on  grass  alone.  Continue  this  treatment 
until  he  is  ready  to  begin  his  services  as  a  pro- 
genitor of  high-grade  animals.  If  he  is  a  good 
individual,  he  will  begin  his  work  in  the  best  pos- 
sible condition  and  will  give  a  good  account  of 
himself. 

The  care  of  the  females  is  almost  identical  with 
that  of  the  males.  They  must  be  liberally,  yet 
judiciously,  fed  and  sheltered.  The  feeds  must  be 
selected  with  an  idea  of  building  up  frame,  of  de- 
veloping muscle,  of  stimulating  those  qualities 
which  are  most  desired — milk  producing  in  the 
dairy  animal,  wool  and  mutton  in  the  sheep,  laying 
on  of  fat  in  the  case  of  hogs,  the  production  of  a 
large  percentage  of  well  marbled  beef  in  the  heavy 
strains  of  cattle  and  the  developing  of  stamina  in 
the  case  of  horses. 

Note  the  difference  between  this  treatment  and 
that  in  animals  intended  for  consumption.  This 
applies  to  beef  animals,  hogs  and  the  mutton 
breeds  of  sheep.  These  should  be,  of  course,  fed 
judiciously,  but  they  should  be  pushed  from  the 
very  start  so  as  to  hasten  maturity,  for  it  is  the 
animal  that  goes  to  market  quickest,  other  things 
being  equal,  that  returns  the  largest  profit.  Note 
the  popularity  of  baby  beef  and  hothouse  lambs 
and  hogs  that  are  sold  at  nine  months.  True,  they 
must  be  fed  so  that  large  growth  is  possible,  so  that 
the  greatest  amount  of  gross  weight  may  be  secured 
at  the  end  of  any  particular  period,  but  after  this  is 
accomplished  no  consideration  need  be  given  to  the 
descendants  of  these  animals  intended  for  the 


PRINCIPLES   OF    BREEDING  97 

block.  The  whole  problem  is  simply  to  keep  them 
in  good  healthy  condition  and  to  fatten  them  as 
rapidly  as  possible  with  the  least  expense.  These 
animals,  too,  must  be  protected  from  unfavorable, 
disagreeable  weather,  must  be  given  good,  clean, 
wholesome  feed,  must  be  given  a  very  limited 
amount  of  exercise  and  must  be  provided  with  pure 
water. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  blood  cannot  take 
the  place  of  good  feeding  and  good  care.  A  pure- 
bred animal  or  herd  will  rapidly  deteriorate  and 
become  an  absolute  expense,  instead  of  a  profit,  if 
feeding  and  care  is  not  present.  The  fact  that  most 
pure-bred  animals  are  in  better  condition  than  those 
that  are  not  royally  bred  is  partly  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  breeder  owning  them  has  sufficient  interest 
in  his  animals  to  give  them  better  care  than  is  ac- 
corded to  the  scrub  animal.  True,  pure-bred 
animals  of  good  individuality  will  do  better  under 
rough  conditions  and  neglect  than  the  animal 
whose  ancestors  have  not  been  bred  for  a  great 
many  years  for  vigor  and  vitality,  but  no  pure-bred 
herd  can  approach  anything  like  a  maximum  of 
profit  or  of  excellence  if  the  feed  is  poor  or  if  the 
shelter  is  not  provided.  Why  was  it  necessary 
that  the  herd  bulls  on  the  range  during  the  period 
of  large  ranches  had  to  be  so  frequently  replaced 
by  animals  from  herds  that  were  given  liberal  at- 
tention and  good  care?  It  wras  due  to  this  very 
fact  that  it  is  impossible,  on  account  of  range  con- 
ditions, to  give  the  shelter  and  feed  necessary  to 
best  developments.  The  pure-bred  animal  could 
not  be  seen  at  his  best  unless  he  was  given  this  care 
on  the  ranch  or  brought  from  the  older  sections 
where  abundance  of  feed  and  shelter  were  available. 

To  the  average  farmer  who  keeps  stock,  and  every 


98  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

farmer  in  the  United  States,  must  sooner  or  later 
keep  farm  animals,  the  breeding  proposition  is 
particularly  fascinating  and  is  interesting  because 
of  the  fact  that  it  results  in  a  much  larger  profit. 
Don't  think  that  you  cannot  handle  pure-bred  stock. 
They  respond  to  good  care  better  than  scrubs. 
Don't  think  that  you  cannot  get  up  your  common 
herd  or  flock.  You  know  what  a  good  individual 
is  if  you  have  been  brought  up  on  a  farm,  and  if 
you  haven't,  there  are  so  many  sources  of  informa- 
tion now  that  there  is  little  excuse  for  ignorance. 
With  this  knowledge  it  is  very  easy  to  discard  the 
unprofitable  animals,  to  keep  the  best,  to  use  a  good 
individual,  pure-bred  sire  and  before  many  years 
you  will  have  a  herd  of  which  you  will  be  proud. 
You  will  have  a  herd  in  which  your  children  will 
take  a  deep  interest.  You  will  have  a  herd  that 
will  increase  your  bank  account  from  direct  sales 
and  also  because  of  the  part  it  plays  in  keeping  up 
the  fertility  of  the  land  devoted  to  cultivated  crops. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Feeds  and  Feeding 

The  problem  of  securing  large  and  economical 
gains  in  the  feeding  of  live  stock  is  not  entirely 
one  of  food  supply,  although  this  is  the  factor 
which  can  be  most  definitely  controlled  and  upon 
which  we  have  the  most  reliable  information.  The 
other  factor  is  the  individuality  of  the  animals 
themselves.  Two  animals  alike  as  to  external  ap- 
pearance, of  equal  age  and  equal  weight,  when 
placed  under  exactly  the  same  conditions  and  given 
exactly  similar  feed,  will  generally  not  make  equal 
gains,  because  of  the  inherent  ability  of  the  one  to 
utilize  its  feed  to  better  advantage  than  the  other. 
The  general  question  of  feeds,  however,  as  to  kind, 
amount  and  methods  of  feeding  for  securing  any 
desired  result  with  any  one  class  of  live  stock,  has 
received  greater  attention  at  the  hands  of  investi- 
gators and  experimenters  than  probably  any  other 
single  phase  of  agricultural  science. 

PRINCIPLES    OF   FEEDING 

We  have  a  vast  amount  of  reliable  information 
bearing  upon  the  composition  of  feeds  under  all 
conditions  and  the  effect  of  these  feeds  used  in 
varying  proportions  in  securing  a  desired  result  in 
live  stock  feeding.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this 
work  to  enter  into  extended  discussion  of  all  the 
problems  pertaining  to  live  stock  feeding — to  even 
touch  upon  each  of  the  various  phases  of  this  sub- 
ject would  require  a  volume  in  itself.  Much  of 

99 


IOO  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

the  really  vital  information  bearing  upon  live  stock 
feeding  is  of  a  highly  technical  nature,  and  it  is 
not  within  the  province  of  this  volume  to  enter 
into  a  scientific  or  technical  discussion  of  the 
facts.  There  are  certain  basic  principles,  how- 
ever, underlying  the  science,  which  are  essential 
to  success,  and  which  are  observed  by  all  ex- 
perienced feeders.  These  principles  are  based 
upon  the  chemical  composition  of  the  animal  body 
and  upon  the  chemical  composition  of  the  forage 
and  grain  used  to  produce  animal  bodies.  While 
there  are  many  subdivisions  of  these  materials, 
they  may  all  be  roughly  divided  into  two  general 
classes,  which  are  known  as  nitrogenous  and  non- 
nitrogenous.  The  former  composes,  in  a  large  de- 
gree, the  muscular  tissue  of  the  body,  while  the 
latter  class  forms  animal  fat  and  serves  to  keep 
up  the  body  heat.  The  forages  and  grains  com- 
monly used  in  animal  feeding  may  also  be  divided 
roughly,  according  to  chemical  composition,  into 
two  similar  groups,  one  of  which  contains  a  pre- 
ponderance of  the  materials  used  in  building  up 
the  muscular  or  nitrogenous  parts  of  the  animal 
body,  and  the  other  containing  a  large  proportion 
of  the  chemical  elements  going  to  build  up  the 
non-nitrogenous  portions  of  the  body.  The  science 
of  successful  feeding  consists  of  the  blending  of 
these  two  classes  of  feeds  in  such  proportions  that 
the  best  results  will  be  secured  in  the  animal 
growth.  Protein  is  a  term  commonly  applied  to 
the  muscle-building  material  in  foods.  The  legu- 
minous hays,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa  and  cowpeas, 
and  such  grains  as  oats,  wheat  and  barley,  are  rich 
in  this  material.  Carbohydrates  is  the  term  very 
commonly  applied  to  the  fat  and  heat-forming 
foods.  Such  forages  as  corn  fodder,  timothy  and 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING  IOI 

other  grasses,  straw  and  sorghums,  such  grain  as 
corn,  and  all  substances  containing  starch  and 
sugar  in  large  proportions,  belong  in  this  class. 

Generally  speaking,  the  best  results  cannot  be  ob- 
tained from  feeding  exclusively  rations  which  con- 
tain one  of  these  important  food  elements  to  the 
practical  exclusion  of  the  other,  for  the  needs  of 
the  animal  body  require  that  the  two  shall  be 
blended  in  certain  proportions  in  order  that  sym- 
metrical development  take  place,  and  no  part  be 
developed  at  the  expense  of  another.  It  should  not 
be  inferred  that  it  is  impossible  to  sustain  life  for 
considerable  periods  without  the  proper  blending 
of  all  food  elements.  Life  and  a  certain  degree  of 
growth  have  been  maintained  for  long  periods  by 
the  use  of  unlimited  amounts  of  one  kind  of  food. 
At  the  Illinois  experiment  station  a  June  calf  was 
maintained  exclusively  upon  skim  milk  until  the 
following  January.  At  this  time,  however,  it  began 
to  refuse  its  feed,  became  unable  to  hold  up  its 
head,  and  appeared  to  be  about  to  die.  Straw  and 
hay  were  then  offered  it.  It  ate  greedily  and  within 
a  few  hours  had  begun  to  improve,  and  from  that 
time  on  made  satisfactory  gains  upon  mixed  feed. 
Similar  experiments  were  conducted,  using  skim 
milk  and  ground  grain,  and  although  enormous 
quantities  of  these  feeds  were  consumed,  they  suf- 
ficed only  to  keep  the  animal  alive  and  to  give  it 
a  small  amount  of  growth,  while  animals  fed  much 
smaller  amounts  of  milk  and  grain  in  connection 
with  a  liberal  ration  of  hay,  made  a  more  consistent 
growth  and  symmetrical  development  of  all  parts 
of  the  body,  although  using  a  smaller  total  quantity 
of  feed.  These  and  other  similar  experiments  show 
that  the  quantity  of  feed  consumed  by  an  animal 
is  not  necessarily  an  indication  of  its  economical 


102  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

use,  but  rather  that  successful  feeding  depends  upon, 
the  proper  blending  of  different  classes  of  feed. 

In  the  investigation  and  discussion  of  feeding 
problems,  the  term  "  nutritive  ratio "  is  one  in 
very  common  use.  By  this  term  is  meant  the  ratio 
which  the  total  amount  of  digestible  protein  in  a 
feeding  ration  bears  to  the  total  amount  of  digest- 
ible carbohydrates.  The  basis  for  computing  such 
a  ratio  was  found  in  the  chemical  analyses  of  the 
various  feeds,  which  are  now  published  in  tabulated 
form  in  all  books  devoted  exclusively  to  feeding 
problems.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  said  to  be  narrow 
or  wide  as  it  contains  a  relatively  large  or  small 
proportion  of  protein.  For  instance,  clover  hay 
has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  15.2.  This  means  that 
there  is  5.2  times  as  much  carbohydrates  as  pro- 
tein in  a  given  amount  of  clover  hay.  In  skim  milk 
the  ratio  is  1:1.63.  This  represents  an  extremely 
narrow  nutritive  ratio,  while  mangels,  having  a 
ratio  of  1 19.2,  represent  an  unusually  wide  nutri- 
tive ratio.  A  feeding  standard  is  simply  the  some- 
what arbitrary  statement  of  the  proportionate 
amounts  of  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  foods 
required  to  effect  a  given  purpose  in  feeding. 
Although  feeding  standards  and  nutritive  ratios 
are  published  in  all  the  works  on  feeding, 
they  should  not  be  regarded  as  an  absolute  and  final 
guide  in  determining  the  formation  of  the  best  feed- 
ing ration  for  animals.  There  are  such  wide  de- 
grees of  variation  in  the  composition  of  feeds,  and 
such  great  individual  differences  in  the  require- 
ments of  animals,  that  a  ration  which  would  be 
ideal  under  one  condition,  would  not  be  well  bal- 
anced under  different  circumstances.  For  in- 
stance, the  composition  of  the  corn  plant  varies  at 
almost  every  stage  of  its  growth,  and  varies  upon 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING  1 03 

different  soils,  and  in  different  climatic  conditions 
at  the  same  stage  of  growth.  At  different  periods 
before  maturity,  the  corn  plant  contains  a  very 
large  per  cent  of  water  and  a  correspondingly  small 
proportion  of  feeding  value.  As  the  time  of  ma- 
turity approaches,  the  water  contained  becomes 
less,  the  materials  of  definite  feeding  value  are  de- 
posited both  in  the  grain  and  in  the  leaves  and 
stalk,  and  the  feeding  value  consequently  increases. 
Then,  after  harvest,  the  plant  is  likely  to  become 
less  palatable,  or  is  likely,  through  imperfect  har- 
vesting and  storing  conditions,  to  lose  considerable 
amounts  of  its  nutriment,  and  its  degree  of  feeding 
value  will  vary  considerably,  depending  upon  the 
degree  of  perfection  reached  in  harvesting  and  stor- 
ing the  crop. 

This  example  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  vari- 
ous kinds  and  classes  of  stock  foods  to  indicate  that 
no  one  chemical  analysis  can  be  rigidly  applied  in 
determining  the  value  of  feed.  The  same  is  true 
with  regard  to  the  individual  animal's  capacity  to 
utilize  feed  to  the  best  advantage.  Digestion  ex- 
periments, extending  over  many  years'  time,  in 
different  sections  of  the  world,  have  shown  that 
no  two  animals  digest  exactly  the  same  amount 
of  the  feed  given  them,  and  consequently  no  two 
can  be  expected  to  make  exactly  the  same  relative 
gains,  even  though  they  be  given  the  same  amount 
of  similar  feeds.  Every  feeder  of  extended  expe- 
rience will  recall  individual  animals  which  he  has 
found  it  impossible  to  fatten.  Every  farmer  has 
had  experience  with  some  ungainly,  raw-boned 
horse,  which  will  consume  enormous  quantities  of 
feed  and  yet  will  always  appear  in  poor  condition 
of  flesh.  These  instances  illustrate  the  vast  dif- 
ference in  the  capacity  of  individual  animals  to 


104 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 


make  good  use  of  the  feed  given  them.  On  ac- 
count of  these  differences,  both  in  the  composition 
of  feed  and  the  utilizing  capacity  of  animals,  it  is 
manifestly  impossible  to  use  arbitrary  feeding 
standards  as  an  absolute  guide  in  composition  of 
rations.  They  should  be  regarded  as  only  approx- 
imately correct  for  average  conditions,  and  fairly 
close  computations,  made  with  the  idea  of  supply- 
ing a  fairly  well-balanced  ration,  will  be  found  all 


SOUTH    DAKOTA   STOCK   BARN 

that  is  necessary  for  a  practical  feeder  under  aver- 
age conditions. 

The  amount  and  kind  of  feed  to  be  given  to  farm 
animals  and  the  character  of  the  ration,  whether  it 
should  be  wide,  medium  or  narrow,  depends  en- 
tirely upon  the  object  sought  by  feeding.  Young 
growing  animals  of  any  kind  and  animals  intended 
for  breeding  will  manifestly  require  a  vastly  dif- 
ferent ration  than  those  which  are  being  fed  for 
slaughter.  Horses  which  are  kept  through  the 
winter  with  but  little  work  to  perform,  the  object 
being  simply  to  maintain  them  in  a  fair  condition 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING  IO5 

of  flesh,  will  require  very  different  treatment  than 
when  performing  hard  labor.  The  ration  suitable 
for  dairy  cows  when  being  fed  for  high  milk  pro- 
duction would  not  be  the  most  profitable  feeding 
practice  for  animals  being  fattened  for  market. 

OBJECT    SOUGHT    DETERMINES    FEEDS 

The  first  consideration  in  planning  a  system  of 
feeding  for  any  period  should  be  the  object  for 
which  the  feeding  is  done.  Another  consideration  is 
the  class  of  feeds  available  in  each  individual  in- 
stance. It  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  figure 
out  a  well-balanced  ration  if  the  feeder  has  at  his 
command  an  unlimited  variety  of  feeds.  The  aver- 
age feeder  is  not  situated  under  these  conditions. 
The  farmer  of  the  midde  West  has  corn,  clover  hay 
and  corn  stover,  as  well  as  blue  grass  and  other 
pastures.  Naturally,  he  wishes  to  use  these  home- 
grown grains  and  fodders  to  the  best  advantage, 
and  to  purchase  from  outside  sources  the  minimum 
amount  of  feeding  material.  How  best  to  combine 
these  available  feeds  so  as  to  produce  the  most 
economical  results  is  the  question  of  most  moment 
to  the  average  farmer  and  stockman. 

For  conditions  in  the  corn  belt,  it  is  probable  that 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay  and  shelled  corn  constitute  the 
basis  for  the  most  economical  ration  for  fattening 
cattle,  sheep  or  horses.  At  the  Nebraska  exper- 
iment station,  four  years  of  experiments  demon- 
strated that  prairie  hay,  when  fed  alone  with  corn 
to  fatten  cattle,  produced  small  and  unsatisfactory 
gains,  and  little  or  no  profit,  while  alfalfa  hay  with 
corn  alone  produced  large  and  profitable  gains.  The 
advantage  of  the  latter  ration  lies  in  the  fact  that 
alfalfa  hay  contains  a  very  large  proportion  of  pro- 


IO6  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

tein,  while  corn  is  very  rich  in  carbohydrates. 
These  two  happen  to  be  combined  in  such  pro- 
portions as  to  form  a  nearly  perfectly  balanced 
ration.  They  furnish  about  an  ideal  proportion  of 
the  materials  demanded  by  the  digestive  system  of 
the  cattle  for  building  up  fat  and  muscular  tissue 
rapidly. 

While  alfalfa  hay  is  beyond  all  question  the  best 
forage  crop  known,  several  other  leguminous  plants 
are  classed  as  close  seconds  and  can  be  substituted 
in  this  ration  with  excellent  results.  Where  for  any 
reason  it  is  not  possible  or  practical  to  grow  alfalfa, 
then  clover  or  cowpeas  can  be  substituted.  In  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Mississippi  valley  region,  clover 
will  be  found  much  more  commonly  than  alfalfa. 
However,  in  the  larger  part  of  the  clover-growing 
region  of  the  United  States  and  a  very  considerable 
part  of  the  alfalfa-producing  belt,  corn  is  also  a 
leading  crop,  and  feeders  naturally  desire  to  utilize 
in  some  way,  the  tremendous  tonnage  of  forage 
which  is  produced  by  the  corn  plant.  Corn  cut  in 
good  season  and  carefully  shocked,  furnishes  tre- 
mendous amounts  of  excellent  fodder  and  most 
farmers  wish  to  utilize  this  in  their  feeding  opera- 
tions, both  to  avoid  waste  of  good  feed  and  in  order 
to  work  up  this  material  into  fit  condition  to  be 
returned  as  fertilizer  to  the  soil.  If,  however,  corn 
stover  be  depended  upon  entirely  for  forage,  and 
corn  for  the  grain  portion  of  the  ration,  it  will 
readily  be  seen  that  the  feed  will  have  too  great  a 
proportion  of  carbohydrates  and  not  enough  of 
protein.  This  will  give  a  one-sided  or  unbalanced 
ration  and  the  best  gains  will  not  be  procured. 
What  this  ration  obviously  needs  is  the  addition  of 
some  feed  containing  a  large  percentage  of  protein. 
If  a  feeder  has  some  clover  or  alfalfa  to  mix  with 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING  1 07 

the  corn  stover,  it  will  serve  to  balance  the  ration. 
If  not,  this  need  may  be  supplied  by  bran,  linseed 
meal  or  cottonseed  meal.  These  feeds  have  a  high 
protein  content,  and  fed  in  relatively  small  amounts 
with  the  corn,  will  supply  the  elements  in  which 
the  exclusive  corn  ration  is  deficient.  This  same 
general  principle  would  hold  equally  true  in  fat- 
tening sheep  or  in  feeding  horses.  It  will  hold 
equally  true  where  timothy  hay  or  sorghum  be 
substituted  for  corn  stover.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  some  of  the  western  valleys  alfalfa  is  raised  in 
great  abundance  and  all  of  the  grains  raised,  such 
as  barley  and  oats,  also  have  a  high  protein  con- 
tent. This  leaves  the  feeder  of  the  mountain  val- 
leys with  the  problem  of  supplying  carbohydrates 
to  form  a  more  perfectly  balanced  ration.  He  meets 
this  by  either  shipping  in  corn  from  the  eastern 
states,  or  by  feeding  sugar  beets,  which  contain  a 
high  per  cent  of  carbohydrates,  or  by  utilizing 
waste  molasses  and  other  by-products  of  the  sugar 
factory. 

If  a  feeder  of  any  experience  nows  the  relative 
proportion  of  the  elements  contained  in  each  class 
of  feed,  he  will  be  able  to  form  a  satisfactory  feed- 
ing ration  by  observing  the  effect  which  different 
combinations  have  upon  the  animals.  The  tend- 
ency with  most  feeders  is  to  give  too  little  protein. 
They  should  not  hesitate  to  purchase  considerable 
amounts  of  concentrated  protein  feeds,  such  as  oil 
meal,  in  cases  where  their  home-grown  crops  do 
not  furnish  this  element.  These  feeds  may  cost  a 
little  more  per  pound,  but  they  will  often  be 
cheaper  in  the  ultimate  result  than  those  capable 
of  producing  fat  alone.  It  seems  to  matter  little 
whether  the  protein  is  derived  from  the  grain  or  the 
roughage.  Corn  fed  with  a  leguminous  hay  seems 


IO8  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

to  give  fully  as  good  results  as  corn  and  oil  meal 
or  cottonseed  meal  fed  with  timothy  hay  or  corn 
stover.  The  animal  that  has  enough  protein  in  its 
food  and  is  young  enough  to  make  a  good  growth, 
will  finish  better,  and  will  not  become  "  patchy " 
when  fattened,  like  one  that  is  fed  on  a  less  nitrog- 
enous ration. 

FEEDING  INFLUENCED  BY  AGE 

The  age  at  which  animals  are  fed  strongly  in- 
fluences their  powers  of  assimilation.  The  younger 
the  animal,  in  general,  the  less  the  cost  of  gains. 
Prof.  H.  R.  Smith  says  that  in  six  different  trials 
when  accurate  records  were  kept  of  gains  and  cost 
of  food,  it  was  found  that  during  the  first  12  months 
each  100  pounds  increase  in  live  weight  cost  $3.45 ; 
during  the  second  12  months,  $11.50.  At  the  Illi- 
nois experiment  station  at  the  beginning  of  an  ex- 
periment, calves  averaged  384  pounds,  yearlings 
784  pounds  and  two-year-olds  1,032  pounds.  The 
net  cost  of  100  pounds  of  gain  was  $4.10  on  calves, 
$5.60  on  yearlings  and  $6.60  on  two-year-olds.  The 
profit  in  beef  production,  however,  consists  not 
alone  in  the  increased  weight  of  the  animal,  but 
also  in  the  enhanced  value  of  the  original  carcass. 
Thus,  if  an  8oo-pound  animal  costs  4  cents  a  pound 
and  after  being  fattened  sells  for  5  cents  a  pound, 
there  is  a  profit  of  $8  on  the  original  carcass.  Where 
meat  animals  are  grown  for  market,  the  greatest 
profit  will  nearly  always  be  found  in  fattening  as 
young  as  possible.  If  western  animals  are  to  be 
fed,  however,  it  will  often  be  found  more  profitable 
to  feed  the  larger  ones  as  long  yearlings  and  two- 
year-olds,  on  account  of  the  greater  margin  afforded 
by  the  heavier  original  weight. 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING  1 09 

EFFECTS    OF    ONE-SIDED    RATION 

In  hog  feeding  these  principles  hold  equally  true 
as  in  the  handling  of  cattle,  sheep  and  horses.  The 
pernicious  effects  of  the  exclusive  feeding  of  highly 
carbonaceous  feeds  is  nowhere  more  apparent  than 
in  the  case  of  hogs  which  have  been  kept  for  several 
generations  on  a  single  corn  diet.  Years  ago  the 
custom  was  much  more  prevalent  than  at  present, 
of  attempting  to  keep  hogs  in  small  pens  during 
their  entire  period  of  existence  and  feeding  them 
little  or  nothing  but  grain,  and  this  usually  meant 
corn.  Immense  amounts  of  corn  were  required  in 
fattening  animals,  but  in  those  days  it  was  worth 
only  a  few  cents  a  bushel  and  so  there  was  little 
object  in  saving  it.  The  effect  of  this  kind  of  feed- 
ing is  most  noticeable  upon  the  breeding  stock, 
especially  where  it  is  continued  for  several  genera- 
tions. Farmers  who  pursued  this  plan  of  hog  rais- 
ing found  that  the  second  or  third  generation  was 
seriously  deficient  as  to  type,  constitution  and 
vigor,  and  that  they  were  no  longer  prolific.  Sev- 
eral of  the  most  valuable  families  or  strains  of 
hogs  have  been  actually  bred  out  of  existence  by 
this  type  of  mismanagement. 

Contrary  to  this  experience,  those  breeders  who 
have  sown  clover  or  alfalfa  for  permanent  hog  pas- 
ture, and  have  used  rape,  rye  or  the  various  other 
quick-growing  crops  in  order  to  keep  green  feed 
available  for  their  hogs  in  connection  with  the  grain 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  have  always 
obtained  cheap  and  rapid  growth,  have  maintained 
their  stock  in  a  high  state  of  health  and  vigor,  and 
have  made  their  business  permanently  successful. 
The  secret  is  that  the  clover,  or  other  pasture,  fur- 
nished protein  to  balance  up  the  carbohydrate  con- 


110  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

tent  of  the  corn,  thus  enabling  the  animal  to  make 
its  growth  and  perform  its  bodily  functions  with- 
out so  overburdening  the  digestive  system  as  to 
impair  health  and  vitality. 

MAINTENANCE  RATIONS 

By  a  maintenance  ration  is  meant  a  ration  of 
such  quantity  and  composition  as  to  simply  main- 
tain an  animal  in  fair  condition  of  flesh  and  to  fur- 
nish enough  nutrition  to  keep  up  body  heat  and 
vitality  without  decreasing  or  increasing  the  weight. 
It  is  often  desirable  to  carry  breeding  animals 
through  the  winter  on  this  basis,  or  to  carry  cattle 
which  it  is  desired  to  fatten  upon  next  season's 
grass  through  the  winter  without  using  a  lot  of 
expensive  grain  feed.  A  ration  with  this  object  in 
view  will  be  narrower  than  that  required  for  fat- 
tening animals,  and  will  not  usually  require  such 
judicious  selection.  An  abundance  of  alfalfa  or 
clover  hay  alone  will  serve  very  well  for  such  pur- 
poses as  these,  because  they  contain  a  sufficient 
amount  of  fat-forming  materials  to  keep  up  body 
heat  and  a  large  proportion  of  muscle-forming  ma- 
terial to  maintain  the  body  weight. 

At  the  Missouri  experiment  station,  timothy  hay 
of  average  quality  was  found  to  be  nutritious 
enough  to  maintain  the  weight  of  yearling  steers 
throughout  the  winter.  To  do  this  required  a  little 
more  than  one  and  one-half  tons  to  winter  each 
steer  weighing  750  pounds  from  November  1st  to 
April  ist.  Upon  this  basis,  the  steers  not  only 
maintained  their  weight,  but  gained  about  50 
pounds  during  the  winter.  At  the  same  station  it  was 
found  that  cured  corn  stover  handled  in  the  ordinary 
farm  practice  would  not  quite  maintain  yearling 
steers.  Each  animal  showed  a  loss  of  33  pounds 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING  III 

on  the  six  months'  feeding,  even  after  consuming 
three  tons  of  corn  stover.  A  very  little  clover  or 
alfalfa  mixed  with  this  corn  stover  would  add 
enough  to  its  feeding  value  to  make  it  a  good 
maintenance  feed.  All  the  rough  feeds  such  as 
kafir  corn,  sorghum,  millet  and  straw  may  be 
profitably  utilized  in  wintering  stock  in  this  man- 
ner, providing  a  small  amount  of  grain  is  available 
to  assist  in  completing  the  ration. 

CONCENTRATES 

All  of  the  grains  and  such  feeds  as  bran,  oil  meal, 
cottonseed  meal,  dried  blood  and  other  packing 
house  by-products,  brewers'  grains,  in  fact  all  feeds 
having  small  bulk  and  high  feeding  value,  are 
termed  concentrates.  It  is  frequently  possible  by 
the  purchase  of  relatively  small  amounts  of  some 
one  or  another  of  these  feeds  to  so  complete  the 
ration  as  to  get  high  returns  out  of  the  rough  forage 
of  the  farm,  which  alone  would  not  serve  even  as  a 
good  maintenance  ration.  Farmers  are  usually 
loath  to  purchase  these  products  on  account  of  their 
seeming  high  price  per  pound,  but  when  the  rela- 
tively high  feeding  value  is  considered  in  compari- 
son with  that  of  some  of  the  home-grown  products, 
it  will  be  seen  that  good  value  is  received,  in  spite 
of  the  high  initial  cost.  Especially  in  maintaining 
young  animals  where  the  greatest  and  most  vigor- 
ous growth  is  desired,  it  will  never  pay  to  feed  an 
inferior  ration,  when  a  purchase  of  small  amounts 
of  concentrated  protein  will  so  greatly  improve  the 
ration.  Growth  which  is  lost  at  this  time  in  the 
life  of  young  animals  can  never  be  regained  no 
matter  how  well  cared  for  they  are  later.  The 
stunted  animal  never  acquires  the  quality  which  it 
would  have  had,  had  its  growth  been  continuous. 


112  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

SUCCULENT   FEEDS 

The  one  factor  in  the  feeding  of  animals  which 
is  most  likely  to  be  overlooked  or  ignored  by  the 
American  farmer  is  that  of  some  kind  of  a  suc- 
culent or  juicy  feed  to  be  used  in  connection  with 
the  dry  hay  and  grain.  English  and  Scotch  farm- 
ers, who  produce  the  finest  specimens  of  sheep  and 
cattle  known  in  the  world  today,  have  for  genera- 
tions emphasized  the  need  of  feeds  of  this  character 
and  have  constantly  used  root  crops  and  juicy 
feeds  of  various  kinds  in  feeding  their  animals  at 
all  times  of  the  year  when  green  grass  is  not  avail- 
able. Good  green  grass  in  itself  is  practically  a 
balanced  ration,  and  ordinarily  needs  nothing  ad- 
ditional, unless  the  stock  is  being  fed  for  slaughter. 
In  addition  to  the  actual  food  constituents  con- 
tained in  grass,  it  has  also  a  large  per  cent  of  juice 
or  water,  and  the  function  of  succulent  feeds  for 
winter  is  to  supply  this  condition  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible in  dry  feeds  used  in  the  winter  time.  This 
can  be  supplied  in  some  form  under  almost  all 
American  farm  conditions,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
upon  90  per  cent  of  the  farms  where  live  stock  is 
kept  in  America,  no  special  provision  is  made  for 
feeds  of  this  character.  This  class  of  feed  may 
consist  of  root  crops,  such  as  beets,  mangels  or 
turnips;  it  may  consist  of  silage  or  wet  brewers' 
grains  or  pulp  from  the  sugar  beet  factories.  The 
only  places  where  it  is  extensively  used  are  in 
dairies  of  the  East  and  middle  West  where  the  silo 
is  now  considered  almost  indispensable,  and  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  beet  sugar  factories  where 
the  pulp  is  easily  available.  The  value  of  succulent 
feed  is  hard  to  determine,  and  it  is  hard  to  point  out 
just  from  whence  this  value  comes.  For  instance, 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING  113 

a  chemical  analysis  of  beet  pulp  shows  a  very  small 
per  cent  of  digestible  material  of  any  sort  in  it, 
the  solid  portion  consisting  principally  of  wood  fiber 
or  cellulose.  There  is  a  trifling  amount  of  sugar 
and  a  small  per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  yet  cattle 
and  sheep  fed  upon  corn,  alfalfa  and  beet  pulp  will 
make  immensely  better  gains  than  when  fed  upon 
corn  and  alfalfa,  even  though  in  greater  amounts. 
The  value  is  probably  in  its  beneficial  effect  upon 
the  digestive  system  of  the  animal,  which  enables 
it  to  make  better  use  of  the  corn  and  hay  consumed 
and  to  transform  a  larger  percentage  of  it  into  fat 
and  muscle. 

Of  course  silage,  especially  corn  silage,  has  a 
definite  feeding  value  aside  from  its  succulent  char- 
acteristics, and  is  used  not  only  in  maintaining  but 
in  fattening  cattle,  to  excellent  advantage.  The 
number  of  feeders  at  the  present  time  who  provide 
silage  for  their  fattening  stock  is  very  small,  but  its 
use  seems  to  be  increasing.  Where  it  is  available 
there  is  no  better  feed  in  winter  for  fattening  cattle. 
They  may  be  given  from  10  to  12  pounds  daily  per 
head.  Experiments  at  Purdue  university  proved 
that  corn  silage  was  very  satisfactory  in  fattening 
steers  where  a  nitrogenous  concentrate  such  as 
cottonseed  meal  was  used  with  it.  Silage-fed 
steers  fed  better,  made  more  rapid  and  cheaper 
gains,  acquired  a  higher  finish  and  returned  a 
greater  profit  than  similar  cattle  fed  under  identical 
conditions  without  silage.  The  best  financial  re- 
sults obtained  at  Purdue  have  been  from  cattle  fed 
on  shelled  corn,  cottonseed  meal  and  corn  silage. 
These  cattle,  after  paying  for  all  the  other  feed, 
returned  96.7  cents  per  bushel  for  all  the  corn  con- 
sumed. 

Too     much     feed     is     wasted     on    the     average 


114  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

American  farm.  The  amount  of  first-class  fodder 
which  goes  to  waste  every  year  in  the  corn  fields 
of  the  Mississippi  valley,  if  preserved  either  as 
forage  or  silage,  would  support  many  thousands  of 
additional  meat  animals,  which  are  now  so  sorely 
needed  in  the  markets  of  the  country.  Much  ma- 
terial that  is  now  little  valued  really  has  definite 
feeding  value,  and  ought  to  be  utilized  as  such. 
There  are  annually  many  thousands  of  bushels  of 
soft  corn  produced  on  account  of  unfavorable 
weather  conditions,  early  frosts  and  other  causes. 
There  is  a  common  idea  that  soft  corn,  and  like- 
wise light  oats  are  very  poor  feed.  The  amounts 
fed  of  either  should  be  measured  by  weight,  not 
by  bulk,  and  with  soft  corn  the  basis  of  computa- 
tion should  be  its  dry  matter.  It  seems  to  be  a 
general  principle  that  different  grades  and  qualities 
of  corn  and  of  oats,  really  have  practically  the  same 
feeding  value  for  each  pound  of  dry  matter,  pro- 
vided the  grain  has  not  been  injured  by  mold  or 
decay.  The  Iowa  experiment  station  discovered  in 
feeding  corn  of  the  1902  crop  to  cattle,  that  a  pound 
of  dry  matter  in  soft  corn  was  practically  equal  to  a 
pound  of  dry  matter  in  sound  corn  for  feeding  to 
fattening  steers.  The  New  Hampshire  experiment 
station  has  recently  discovered  that  pound  for 
pound,  light  oats  are  only  a  possible  shade  inferior 
to  heavy  oats  for  horse  feeding.  The  real  feeding 
value  of  grain  of  this  character  is  greater  than 
farmers  generally  suppose. 

Many  American  farmers  are  raising  grain  with 
the  fixed  intention  of  hauling  it  to  the  elevator  for 
sale.  Every  crop  removed  thus  from  the  farm  de- 
tracts just  that  much  from  the  available  fertility  of 
the  soil,  because  that  much  material  is  gone  and 
can  never  be  regained  except  by  direct  purchase. 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING  1 15 

The  average  farmer  has  too  little  appreciation  of 
the  value  of  the  grain  and  forage  he  produces  for 
live  stock  feeding  purposes.  He  is  too  willing  to 
abandon  live  stock  production  and  feeding  as  un- 
profitable, because,  for  the  moment,  grain  growing 
seems  more  attractive.  He  needs  a  keener  appre- 
ciation of  the  feeding  value  of  the  different  crops 
possible  for  him  to  grow,  of  the  profits  which  care- 
ful breeding  and  intelligent  feeding  of  farm  animals 
will  bring  him,  and  of  the  cumulative  effect  pro- 
duced upon  his  soil  by  a  continued  application  to 
it  of  the  manure  produced  by  this  live  stock  in  con- 
suming the  corn  stover,  straw,  hay  and  grain  which 
he  can  grow.  The  live  stock  breeder  should  in- 
form himself  of  the  principles  which  underly 
this  science,  and  should  develop  an  accurate  appre- 
ciation of  the  values  of  different  kinds  of  feed.  He 
should  be  able  to  know  when  the  products  grown 
upon  his  farm  are  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  the 
growing  animal,  and  what  he  should  produce  to 
supply  this  deficiency.  He  should  be  able  to  judge 
when  it  will  be  profitable  for  him  to  purchase  high- 
priced  concentrates,  and  just  what  the  character 
of  these  concentrates  should  be.  It  pays  for  nearly 
every  farm  to  produce  a  sufficient  variety  of  feed- 
ing material  to  furnish  a  well  balanced  ration.  This 
is  especially  true  in  all  regions  where  it  is  possible 
to  raise  corn,  because  here  also  in  nearly  every  in- 
stance it  is  possible  to  raise  clover  and  alfalfa. 
Close  attention  to  the  needs  of  animals  under  dif- 
ferent conditions  and  full  information  as  to  the 
kinds  of  forage  and  grain  which  will  most  fully  and 
most  economically  supply  these  needs  is  the  basic 
information  without  which  successful  feeding  on  an 
intelligent  basis  will  be  found  impossible. 


CHAPTER  X 

Profit  from  the  Dairy 

MAGNITUDE    OF    DAIRY    INDUSTRY 

The  dairy  industry  in  the  United  States  is  of 
much  greater  magnitude  than  is  apparent  to  the 
average  observer.  The  most  reliable  figures  avail- 
able in  1910  place  the  total  number  of  dairy  cows 
in  the  United  States  at  21,801,000,  having  a  total 
farm  value  of  more  than  $780,000,000.  The  dairy 
products  have  an  annual  value  closely  approximat- 
ing $800,000,000.  This  is  greater  than  the  value  of 
any  farm  crop,  except  corn.  When  the  dairy  out- 
put is  combined  with  the  valuation  of  dairy  stock  it 
represents  a  total  of  more  than  $1,500,000,000.  This 
represents  more  investment  than  all  the  meat  cattle 
of  the  land,  together  with  the  hogs  and  sheep.  It 
is  an  industry  that  tends  to  intensify  farming 
methods.  Where  people  are  obliged  to  live  on  small 
farms  and  closely  together,  it  is  found  necessary,  in 
order  to  keep  up  the  required  land  fertility  and 
utilize  in  the  most  economical  way  the  farm  forage 
products.  It  is  one  of  the  factors  which  enters  most 
strongly  into  the  great  question  of  conserving  soil 
fertility.  Where  butter  is  made  and  sold  from  the 
farm  practically  no  soil  fertility  leaves,  but  on  the 
contrary,  the  farm  is  made  richer. 

It  requires  a  frugal,  industrious  people  for  this 
work,  as  it  means  steady  employment  and  careful, 
painstaking  methods.  Where  grain  is  raised  ex- 
clusively, the  labor  is  confined  to  a  few  months  in 
each  year,  but  in  the  dairy  business  employment  is 

116 


PROFIT  FROM   THE   DAIRY 


constant.  It  advances  the  value  of  land,  and  being 
economical  in  its  nature  can  be  carried  on  where 
land  values  are  so  high  that  most  of  the  common 
farm  practices  must  be  abandoned.  For  example, 
in  Denmark  where  the  people  live  closely  together 
on  small  farms,  the  dairy  business  is  found  most 
fully  developed.  From  this  little  country  every 
year  is  sold  over  $40,000,000  worth  of  butter,  and 
the  government  considers  it  so  important  that  not 
less  than  16  dairy  schools  are  maintained  in  this 
small  area.  It  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  con- 
densing our  farm  crops  and  raw  material  into  a 
product  which  is  worth  more  per  pound  than  any 
other  sold  from  the  farm.  For  example,  butter  pro- 
duced in  the  central  part  of  America  can  be  mar- 
keted in  any  part  of  the  world.  The  rough  fodders 
and  grasses  of  our  farms  can  be  concentrated  into 
a  condensed  form  which  will  require  a  very  light 
tax  to  market  in  distant  lands.  It  is  an  industry 
that  thrives  where  knowledge  and  science  are  ap- 
plied. No  industry,  perhaps,  requires  this  more 
than  the  dairy  business.  It  is  an  industry  of  the 
people.  It  is  not  one  that  is  hampered  by  trust 
or  consolidation,  but  is  enjoyed  by  every  farmer 
of  the  land  who  wishes  to  engage  in  the  enterprise. 
May  it  always  be  so  preserved  ! 

FIELDS  FOR  IMPROVEMENT 

There  are  two  great  fields  for  improvement, 
namely,  to  raise  the  annual  production  of  our  cows 
and  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  products.  In 
these  two  fields,  perhaps,  the  most  important  is  the 
first,  and  could  the  annual  product  of  the  American 
cow  be  advanced  a  few  pounds  of  butter  per  year, 
it  would  bring  a  vast  fortune  to  our  producers. 
This  improvement  is  going  on  rapidly,  and  prom- 


Il8  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

ises  to  accomplish  much  during  the  next  few  years. 
For  example,  the  Nebraska  experiment  station  has 
a  cow  which  has  produced  17,000  pounds  of  milk 
and  650  pounds  of  butter.  The  average  cow  pro- 
duces about  3,000  pounds  of  milk  and  100  pounds 
of  butter.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  good  cow  is 
equal  to  six  average  animals  in  production.  Now, 
it  is  possible  to  develop  such  animals.  A  daughter 
of  this  cow,  which  is  called  Katy  Gerben,  has 
equaled  her  mother  in  the  milk  and  butter  record, 
and  here  promises  a  family  which  can  produce  such 
records.  Better  care  of  the  stock  we  now  have 
would,  without  doubt,  increase  the  annual  produc- 
tion 30  per  cent;  this,  with  wise  selection  of  the 
young  animals,  would,  in  a  short  time,  double  the 
output  with  the  same  number  of  cows. 

The  quality  of  the  product  is  of  vast  importance, 
and  could  we  produce  such  butter  as  the  Danes  are 
making,  we  would  be  able  to  obtain  possession  of 
the  English  market,  which  would  bring  to  our 
nation  forty  or  fifty  million  dollars  per  year.  If 
we  could  improve  the  quality  of  our  cheese  it 
would  save  a  vast  amount  of  money  and  give  us  a 
foreign  market  for  our  surplus  make.  During  the 
past  decade  great  improvements  have  been  made 
in  the  methods  of  assembling  and  manufacturing 
the  products.  The  centrifugal  separator  brought  a 
revolution  to  the  dairy  world,  and  made  possible 
the  creaming  of  milk  in  an  economical  manner  and 
in  a  short  space  of  time. 

The  milking  machine  is  now  deemed  a  success, 
and  .all  it  requires  is  a  little  time  to  place  it  in  gen- 
eral use.  There  are  at  the  present  time  over  1,000 
milking  machines  in  operation  in  this  country,  and 
from  reports  by  the  users  there  is  good  evidence 
that  they  are  giving  satisfaction.  With  this  ma- 


PROFIT   FROM    THE   DAIRY 

chine  the  labor  problem,  which  is  one  of  the  vexing 
features  of  dairying,  will  be  greatly  simplified. 

The  butter  accumulator  is  now  also  receiving 
much  attention.  This  machine  takes  the  fresh  milk 
and  turns  it  into  butter,  skim  milk  and  buttermilk 
in  a  few  minutes.  The  Babcock  test  made  a  revo- 
lution and  brought  untold  good  to  the  dairy  world. 
It  has  made  possible  the  finding  in  a  few  minutes 
of  the  value  of  the  dairy  products,  and  is  the  means 
of  obtaining  the  value  of  milk  and  cream  as  sold 
to  the  general  market. 

With  all  that  has  been  accomplished  and  the 
bright  future  so  full  of  encouragement  with  good 
things  to  come,  still  there  is  a  vast  field  for  im- 
provement. Through  the  broad  land  the  rank  and 
file  of  cow  keepers  are  failing  in  what  we  term 
successful  dairying.  This  failure  is  due  to  the  few 
undone  little  things  about  the  dairy.  It  is  those 
most  talked  of  and  written  about,  but  still  foreign 
to  the  masses,  who,  at  least,  do  not  carry  them  out 
in  practice.  Sharp  competition  may  in  time  bring 
about  an  improvement,  through  sheer  necessity  for 
more  profit. 

TYPES    OF    DAIRYING 

The  dairy  industry  of  the  United  States  may  be 
divided  roughly  into  two  general  types,  one  of 
which  has  for  its  object  the  furnishing  of  fresh  milk 
for  domestic  use  to  people  living  in  towns  and 
cities.  The  other  type  is  concerned  in  the  produc- 
tion of  milk  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  butter 
and  cheese  either  on  a  small  scale  upon  the  'farm 
or  on  a  larger  scale  by  centralized  creameries. 
Which  one  of  these  types  it  is  most  practical  to 
follow  depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  geograph- 
ical location.  It  can  readily  be  seen  that  farms 


I2O  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

remotely  removed  from  cities  or  farms  not  readily 
accessible  to  quick  transportation  facilities,  could 
not  produce  milk  for  city  markets.  The  milk  used 
for  domestic  purposes  in  such  large  consuming 
centers  as  Chicago,  for  instance,  is  all  produced 
within  an  approximate  radius  of  100  miles  from  the 
city,  and  except  under  unusually  favorable  trans- 
portation conditions,  it  will  not  be  profitable  to 
ship  milk  much  further  than  this. 

The  other  type  of  dairying,  on  the  contrary,  can 
be  conducted  upon  any  farm  which  is  producing 
the  necessary  feed  for  carrying  on  dairy  operations. 
Nearly  every  farm  in  the  middle  West  and  North- 
west conducts  a  dairy  of  some  sort  or  other.  Since 
the  introduction  into  nearly  every  farm  home  of 
the  hand  separator,  the  production  of  cream  for 
sale  to  large  butter-making  concerns  has  materially 
increased.  By  the  use  of  these  machines  it  is  pos- 
sible for  the  farmer  to  secure  the  available  butter 
fat  from  the  fresh  milk  within  a  very  few  minutes 
after  milking,  and  use  the  sweet,  warm  skim  milk 
for  feeding  calves  or  pigs.  The  cream  is  then  sold 
either  to  the  local  creamery  or  to  representatives 
of  some  of  the  large  buttermaking  concerns,  and  a 
definite,  monthly  income  is  thus  assured.  Fresh, 
wholesome  skim  milk  secured  by  this  process  can 
be  so  judiciously  fed  as  to  develop  calves  equally 
as  good  as  though  they  had  been  allowed  to  follow 
their  dams.  This  fact  has  been  taken  advantage 
of  in  recent  years  by  thousands  of  farmers  who 
originally  kept  cattle  only  for  the  increase.  Under 
this  system,  by  milking  the  cows  and  raising  the 
calves  to  be  finished  later  for  beef,  they  are  able  to 
have  two  sources  of  revenue,  while  the  old  system 
gave  them  only  one. 

The    production    of    milk   for    the    city    market 


PROFIT   FROM    THE  DAIRY  121 

usually  demands  cows  of  a  pronounced  dairy  type. 
Such  breeds  as  the  Jerseys,  Guernseys  and  Hoi- 
steins,  which  have  been  bred  for  hundreds  of  years 
exclusively  for  dairy  purposes,  are  unquestionably 
the  most  profitable  animals  to  keep  for  this  pur- 
pose. A  great  many  farmers  say  that  for  any  type 
of  dairying  the  dairy  breeds  are  the  only  profitable 
type  of  cows  to  keep.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
middle  western  country,  there  are  thousands  of 
farmers  whose  circumstances  demand  that  the  fin- 
ishing of  live  stock  shall  constitute  the  leading  fea- 
ture of  their  farm  practice.  They  have  a  good  deal 
of  pasture,  and  their  farms  produce  enormous 
amounts  of  forage  and  grain.  These  they  do  not 
wish  to  sell  in  the  market  because  of  considerations 
relating  to  soil  fertility.  For  various  reasons,  chief 
among  them  the  increasingly  perplexing  proposi- 
tion of  farm  labor,  they  are  unable  or  unwilling  to 
change  their  type  of  farming  to  exclusive  dairying. 
Yet,  upon  their  high-priced  land,  they  do  not  think 
that  they  are  justified  in  keeping  large  numbers  of 
breeding  cattle  merely  for  the  production  of  calves. 
These  conditions  place  them  under  the  necessity 
of  keeping  a  type  of  animals  from  which  reasonable 
returns  can  be  realized  in  dairy  operations,  and 
which  will  also  produce  a  type  of  offspring 
well  suited  to  being  fattened  for  beef.  These  con- 
ditions have  given  rise  to  a  strong  demand  on  the 
part  of  many  American  farmers,  for  a  dual  purpose 
type  of  cattle.  The  so-called  dual  purpose  breeds 
are  Red  Polls,  the  milking  Shorthorn,  the  Brown 
Swiss  and  the  Devon.  Of  these,  the  milking  Short- 
horn and  Red  Poll  are  most  common  upon  American 
farms,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  milking  strains 
of  Shorthorns  are  by  far  the  most  popular.  These 
cattle  produce  calves  of  very  good  beef  type, 


122          PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

and  at  the  same  time  are  heavy  milkers.  Rose,  a 
Shorthorn  cow  owned  by  N.  G.  Simpson  of  New 
Hampshire,  has  a  record  of  11,000  pounds  of  milk 
produced  in  one  year.  Another  has  a  record  of 
9,550  pounds  of  milk,  from  which  were  made  448 
pounds  of  butter.  Still  another  produced  60 
pounds  of  milk,  making  2  pounds  12^/2  ounces  of 
butter,  in  24  hours.  While  these  records  are  by  no 
means  equal  to  the  production  of  famous  cows  of 
the  dairy  breeds,  still  they  show  that  profitable 
dairying  is  possible  with  the  best  type  of  dual  pur- 
pose stock  under  conditions  which  seem  suited  to 
this  type  of  dairying. 

The  farmer  should  use  his  best  judgment  in  de- 
termining whether  his  surroundings  justify  an  ex- 
clusive dairy  industry,  or  whether  his  conditions 
will  demand  a  more  mixed  type  of  farming,  and 
then  direct  his  entire  energy  toward  securing  and 
breeding  the  very  best  animals  of  the  particular 
type  upon  which  he  decides.  If  he  is  just  starting 
in  the  business,  he  had  better  begin  with  a  few  good 
cows  and  gradually  work  up  until  the  carrying 
capacity  of  his  farm  is  reached,  rather  than  start  too 
heavily  and  later  have  to  decrease  his  numbers  on 
account  of  having  too  little  feed.  The  crying  need 
of  dairying  inAmerica  today  is  not  for  more  dairy 
cows  but  for  better  ones.  The  feed  which  it  re- 
quires to  support  our  21,000,000  dairy  cows  ought 
to  produce  at  least  twice  the  amount  of  dairy  prod- 
ucts that  it  does.  There  is  a  smaller  degree  of 
efficiency  in  cows  used  in  milk  production  in  the 
United  States  than  in  any  other  class  of  live  stock. 

CONSIDERATIONS   OF   EFFICIENCY 

What  are  some  of  the  means  by  which  the  pro- 
ducing capacity  of  the  dairy  herds  can  be  increased? 


PROFIT   FROM    THE   DAIRY  123 

Intelligent  selection,  breeding  and  keeping  accu- 
rate records  of  each  cow's  production,  use  of  the 
Babcock  tester  in  determining  the  amount  of  butter 
fat  contained  in  each  cow's  milk  and  the  prompt 
elimination  from  the  herd  of  all  cows  not  producing 
milk  in  paying  quantities,  will  go  a  long  way 
toward  this  end.  A  careful  and  systematic  test- 
ing for  disease,  so  that  no  animals  will  be  kept 
which  are  not  in  perfect  physical  condition,  will 
stop  a  great  deal  more  waste.  A  keen  appreciation 
of  the  principles  of  feeding  and  the  use  in  the 
dairy  of  feeds  and  feeding  methods  calculated  to 
stimulate  milk  production  to  its  highest  point, 
will  be  found  not  the  least  important  detail  to  be 
considered. 

The  farmer,  first  of  all,  must  have  a  definite  idea 
of  what  constitutes  dairy  type  in  cows,  and  then 
select  such  breeding  stock  as  most  nearly  conform 
to  this  ideal.  It  is  folly  to  maintain  for  exclusive 
dairy  purposes  a  cow  of  marked  beef  type.  There 
is  as  much  difference  between  the  dairy  type  and 
the  beef  type  as  there  is  between  a  draft  horse 
and  a  racer.  The  farmer  should  familiarize 
himself  with  these  points  of  difference  and 
make  use  of  them  in  choosing  his  foundation 
stock.  In  his  breeding  operations  he  should 
constantly  select  as  the  animals  which  he  in- 
tends to  keep  not  only  the  best  appearing  in- 
dividuals in  his  herd,  but  those  which  are  the  off- 
spring of  cows  having  satisfactory  dairy  records. 
These  cows  he  will  know  because  of  the  tests  he 
has  made  to  determine  their  milk  and  butter  pro- 
duction. By  selecting  foundation  stock  in  this  way 
and  by  rearing  the  best  offspring,  a  paying  herd, 
producing  high-grade  milk  may  be  built  up  in  a 
comparatively  short  time. 


I24 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 


Never  before  has  the  importance  of  cutting  out 
and  disposing  of  the  unprofitable  cows  from  the 
herd  been  more  prominent  than  at  the  present  time. 
It  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  determine  whether  a 
herd  is  profitable  or  not  or  whether  any  individual 
in  the  herd  is  profitable.  It  can  be  readily  seen 
that  if  a  man  has  three  cows  which  produce  enough 
milk  to  pay  a  liberal  margin  of  profit  over  the 


MODERN   DAIRY    HOUSE 

amount  of  feed  they  receive,  and  three  others, 
which  give  an  equal  amount  less  than  the  value  of 
their  feed,  the  deficiency  of  the  latter  three  simply 
balances  the  good  qualities  of  the  former  three,  and 
eliminates  any  possible  profit  from  the  whole  herd. 
The  three  poor  producers  not  only  do  not  pay  for 
their  own  board,  but  are  dependent  upon  the  good 
qualities  of  the  profitable  three  in  order  to  make 
the  books  balance.  In  order  to  determine  which 
individuals  are  boarders  and  which  are  dividend 
payers,  it  is  only  necessary  to  weigh  each  day  the 
milk  of  each  cow,  and  to  occasionally  test  for  butter 


PROFIT  FROM    THE  DAIRY  125 

fat  samples  of  each  cow's  milk.  There  are  numer- 
ous handy  devices  for  weighing  milk  and  keeping 
a  record  for  each  cow  which  can  be  secured  at 
trifling  cost  from  any  dealer  in  dairy  supplies,  while 
the  use  of  the  Babcock  tester  is  so  simple  and  so 
well  known  that  it  needs  no  comment.  By  using 
these  devices  and  keeping  a  fairly  accurate  record 
of  the  feed  consumed,  one  can  readily  determine 
which  cow  should  be  culled  out  from  the  herd. 
Not  only  will  this  elimination  of  profitless  stock 
prove  a  direct  benefit  in  the  saving  of  feed  and 
labor,  but  the  herd  will  be  greatly  improved,  and 
the  offspring  from  the  selected  cows,  if  sired  by  a 
male  of  known  breeding  quality,  will  be  worth 
several  hundred  per  cent  more  than  those  from  an 
untested  herd. 

CO-OPERATIVE  IMPROVEMENT 

In  some  of  the  most  progressive  dairy  sections 
of  the  United  States,  recent  years  have  developed 
so  keen  a  realization  of  the  necessity  for  intelligent 
breeding  and  for  careful  testing  that  co-operative 
breeding  associations  and  cow-testing  associations 
have  been  formed.  These  have  almost  invariably 
proved  successful  and  have  been  the  means  of 
tremendously  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  dairy 
stock  in  every  section  where  they  have  been  given 
careful  trials.  The  general  plan  of  a  co-operative 
breeding  association  requires  that  a  number  of 
farmers  living  reasonably  near  together,  purchase 
pure-bred  bulls  with  which  to  head  their  herds. 
Sometimes  several  farmers  may  combine  in  getting 
the  same  animal  if  their  circumstances  and  location 
seem  to  justify  this.  A  farmer  or  group  of  farmers 
somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  may  purchase  an- 
other pure-bred  bull.  By  combining  their  resources 


126          PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

in  this  manner  they  are  able  to  spend  more  money 
and  secure  a  better  individual  than  they  would 
otherwise  have  done.  At  the  end  of  two  years  at 
most,  it  is  always  customary  for  a  breeder  to  get  rid 
of  his  herd  bull  and  purchase  one  of  different  family 
in  order  to  avoid  inbreeding,  or  a  too  close  relation- 
ship between  these  families.  The  members  of  the 
co-operative  breeding  association  always  arrange  to 
make  their  original  purchases  from  different  strains 
of  stock,  so  that  when  the  necessity  for  this  change 
arises,  they  simply  trade  bulls.  This  plan  serves 
to  keep  in  the  one  community  valuable  animals 
which  under  the  old  plan  would  probably  have  been 
shipped  to  distant  points.  It  prevents  needless  ex- 
penditure and  duplication  of  animals  and  has  proved 
very  satisfactory  in  its  effect  of  constantly  up- 
building a  class  of  stock  not  only  for  individuals 
but  for  entire  communities. 

Co-operative  testing  associations  usually  consist 
of  about  26  members  each.  They  pay  a  stated  sum 
per  month,  depending  upon  the  number  of  cows  each 
has,  the  money  going  to  pay  the  salary  of  a  man 
whose  business  it  is  to  test  each  herd  once  a  month. 
This  is  planned  on  the  basis  of  one  herd  for  each 
working  day,  but  in  case  the  members  live  so  closely 
together  that  it  would  be  possible  to  test  two  herds 
or  more  a  day,  the  number  of  members  can  be  in- 
creased, and  the  cost  per  member  decreased  ac- 
cordingly. Each  member  keeps  for  himself  the 
weight  of  milk  per  cow  for  each  day,  but  turns  the 
card  over  to  the  representative  of  the  association 
upon  his  arrival.  This  representative  is  equipped 
with  a  Babcock  tester  and  the  necessary  chemicals 
for  making  a  test,  and  is  furnished  with  samples  of 
the  milk  of  each  cow.  This  does  away  with  the 
trouble  and  work  incidental  to  taking  care  of  the 


PROFIT   FROM    THE   DAIRY  127 

records  and  provides  a  reliable  guide  for  the  farmer 
in  determining  which  of  his  cows  should  be  elim- 
inated from  the  herd. 

Careful  selection,  intelligent  breeding  and  con- 
tinual discrimination  in  culling  out  unprofitable  in- 
dividuals are  essential  to  the  most  satisfactory  type 
of  dairying,  but  these  in  themselves,  no  matter  how 
faithfully  followed,  will  not  bring  results  to  the 
farmer.  The  dairy  cow  is  a  highly  developed  ma- 
chine for  transforming  grain  and  forage  into  milk 
and  dairy  products.  It  will  be  necessary  to  fur- 
nish her  with  all  the  feed  she  can  consume,  and  it 
will  be  further  necessary  that  this  feed  should  be 
so  selected  and  furnished  in  such  proportions  as 
to  enable  her  to  produce  the  greatest  possible 
amount  of  milk  and  the  greatest  possible  amount 
of  butter  fat.  An  engine  cannot  be  expected  to 
develop  its  full  amount  of  power  unless  plenty  of 
fuel  is  furnished,  and  it  is  no  more  reasonable  to 
expect  a  cow  to  accomplish  her  greatest  produc- 
tion unless  she  is  heavily  and  intelligently  fed. 

SILOS   AND    SILAGE 

In  these  days,  when  one  hears  the  word  dairy, 
he  thinks  of  a  silo.  Under  the  present  conditions, 
when  land  in  the  dairy  districts  is  extremely  high 
in  price,  and  when  all  the  feeds  used  in  dairying  are 
in  strong  market  demand  and  correspondingly  valu- 
able, it  is  scarcely  possible  to  realize  the  maximum 
profits  from  the  dairy  without  using  a  silo  in  which 
to  store  a  cheap  supply  of  efficient  feed.  The  corn 
crop  furnishes  by  all  odds  the  best  feed  for  itse  in 
a  silo.  The  heavy  tonnage  makes  it  possible  to 
raise  enough  corn  to  fill  a  large  silo  upon  a  com- 
paratively small  area  of  land,  while  the  large 
amount  of  nourishing  grain  contained  in  this  crop 


128  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

at  the  time  it  is  cut  for  silage  adds  materially  to  its 
feeding  value.  There  is  no  question  that  corn  sil- 
age and  alfalfa  hay,  fed  together,  form  the  most 
ideal  combination  known  for  dairy  feeding.  Where 
alfalfa  is  not  produced,  bright  well-cured  clover  or 
cowpeas  will  do  nearly  as  well.  Alfalfa  will,  to  a 
great  extent,  take  the  place  of  bran  in  a  ration  on 
account  of  its  high  protein  content.  Careful,  con- 
servative dairymen  who  have  kept  accurate  account 
of  the  results  obtained  from  different  feeds,  state 
that  rather  than  be  without  alfalfa  hay  in  winter 
they  would  pay  $20  a  ton  for  it.  The  cheapest  com- 
bination ever  used  by  the  Nebraska  experiment  sta- 
tion in  producing  milk  and  butter  consisted  of  100 
tons  of  alfalfa  hay  fed  in  connection  with  125  tons 
of  corn  silage.  This  was  fed  during  the  winter  to 
40  cows,  which  averaged  over  400  pounds  of 
butter  each. 

It  will  scarcely  pay  a  man  to  engage  in  any  form 
of  agriculture  without  fairly  satisfactory  equipment 
with  which  to  perform  his  work.  This  is  especially 
true  of  dairying.  After  reasonably  good  stock  has 
been  secured,  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable  and 
nearly  indispensable  article  of  dairy  equipment  is 
the  silo.  The  cost  is  so  trifling  when  compared 
with  the  advantages  to  be  derived  as  to  be  a  matter 
of  little  or  no  consideration.  It  may  be  said  to  be 
indispensable  to  the  most  profitable  dairy  practice 
under  all  conditions  except  in  sections  of  the  south 
where  green  feed  is  available  at  all  periods  of  the 
year. 

Just  what  feeds  the  dairyman  shall  use,  depends 
very  largely,  of  course,  upon  the  local  conditions 
under  which  he  works.  Many  men  who  are  en- 
gaged in  producing  milk  for  city  markets  have  only 
a  small  piece  of  land  and  are  not  able  to  raise  large 


PROFIT   FROM    THE  DAIRY  I2Q 

amounts  of  forage  of  such  bulky  nature  as  clover 
or  alfalfa  hay.  Under  these  conditions,  their  best 
plan  is  probably  to  raise  all  the  corn  they  can  for 
silage  and  then  purchase  in  the  markets  their  pro- 
tein feed.  The  silage  will  furnish  succulence  and 
bulk  to  the  ration,  and  will  supply  all,  or  nearly  all, 
of  the  carbohydrates  needed,  but  milk  production 
requires  especially  large  quantities  of  protein.  This 
can  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  bran,  linseed  meal, 
cottonseed  meal,  brewers'  grain  and  various  manu- 
factured feeds  which  are  sold  under  a  guarantee  as 
to  their  protein  contents. 

In  recent  years  the  alfalfa-growing  districts  in 
the  far  West  have  built  up  a  considerable  industry 
in  grinding  alfalfa  hay  into  the  form  of  meal,  which 
is  shipped  in  sacks  and  can  be  used  the  same  as 
bran  as  concentrated  protein.  Where  the  very  best 
quality  of  this  is  obtainable,  its  feeding  value  as  a 
concentrate  is  nearly,  or  quite,  equal  to  that  of 
bran.  In  many  of  the  semi-arid  districts  of  the  far 
West  dairying  is  depended  upon  in  considerable  de- 
gree for  the  family  income.  In  many  of  these 
regions  they  do  not  raise  much  alfalfa  or  other 
leguminous  hay.  Their  forages  consist  of  millet, 
sorghum  and  corn  fodder.  Few,  if  any,  have  as  yet 
even  thought  of  building  silos,  yet  it  is  possible  for 
them  to  feed  a  fairly  satisfactory  dairy  ration  by 
mixing  with  their  carbonaceous  forages  liberal 
proportions  of  oats,  barley  or  other  nitrogenous 
grains.  The  great  fault  with  a  dairy  ration  of  this 
character  is  that  it  lacks  succulence,  and  this  qual- 
ity in  the  feed  is  one  of  the  prime  requisites  in  the 
most  successful  type  of  dairying.  Silage  furnishes 
succulence  along  with  its  other  desirable  qualities. 
Root  crops  also  serve  this  purpose  very  well,  but 
should  be  finely  chopped  or  sliced  when  fed  to 


I3O  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

cows,  in  order  to  avoid  the  danger  of  choking. 
Pasture  grass,  either  the  blue  grass  of  the  East 
and  South  or  the  nutritious  wild  grasses  found  in 
the  West,  form  an  almost  ideal  all-around  feed  for 
the  dairy.  There  are,  however,  only  two  or  three 
months  of  the  year  when  these  grasses  are  at  their 
best,  and  supplementary  feeding  is  required  for  the 
largest  results  during  the  greater  portion  of  the 
year.  Another  disadvantage  of  pasturing,  espe- 
cially upon  high-priced  land,  is  its  wastefulness. 
The  necessity  for  the  economical  utilization  of  all 
the  feed  raised  on  a  farm  under  intensive  condi- 
tions has  led  to  the  system  of  feeding  known  as 
soiling.  This  plan  requires  keeping  the  cows  in  a 
barn,  or  in  relatively  small  lots,  at  all  times,  and 
cutting  green  growing  crops  such  as  rye,  rape, 
clover  or  other  suitable  plants  each  day  and  feeding 
in  just  such  quantities  as  are  required.  This  does 
away  with  wastefulness  of  pasturing  and  enables 
the  keeping  of  a  larger  number  of  animals  than 
could  otherwise  be  done.  The  silo  can  be  used  in 
connection  with  soiling,  to  very  good  advantage, 
or  it  can  be  used  in  connection  with  pasturing  by 
providing  a  supply  of  the  summer  silage  to  use 
when  the  grass  gets  short  and  dry  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  summer.  One  of  the  most  successful 
dairymen  in  Illinois  cuts  from  five  to  seven  acres 
of  rye  and  clover  in  June  and  chops  it  finely  in  his 
silage  cutter,  packs  it  in  the  silo  for  summer  use, 
and  finishes  feeding  it  out  only  just  before  the  corn 
silage  is  available  in  the  fall.  He  states  that  he 
finds  this  the  most  profitable  crop  of  his  entire  farm. 

NEEDS  OF  MILK  PRODUCTION 

Whatever  feeds  are   given   and   whatever   is   the 
feeding  practice,  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind 


PROFIT   FROM    THE   DAIRY  13! 

that  milk  production  requires  lots  of  protein,  and 
that  maximum  milk  production  requires  a  succulent 
feed.  The  greatest  profits  from  dairying  are  not 
possible  without  the  strictest  attention  to  the  needs 
of  the  cow  in  planning  her  ration. 

The  dairy  industry,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the 
production  of  milk,  is  rapidly  undergoing  a  revolu- 
tion. The  changes  demanded  by  the  boards  of 
health  must  necessarily  increase  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction somewhat,  although  not  to  the  extent  of 
making  dairying  unprofitable,  under  conditions  of 
reasonable  farm  efficiency.  Many  of  the  careless 
methods  which  have  been  sanctioned  in  the  past 
must  go.  What  is  required  from  the  present 
day  standpoint?  In  few  words,  the  demand  is  for 
clean,  healthy  cows,  well-lighted,  well-ventilated 
clean  and  airy  stables,  tight,  sound  floors,  clean, 
healthy  attendants,  clean  utensils,  prompt  removal 
and  cooling  of  the  milk  in  a  proper  room  used  ex- 
clusively for  the  purpose,  and  storage  at  a  tem- 
perature below  60  degrees.  The  use  of  the  small 
top  milk  pail  cannot  be  too  strongly  recommended 
in  eliminating  dirt  and  bacteria.  In  one  instance, 
where  a  study  was  made  of  this  point,  it  was  found 
that  where  the  ordinary  open  pail  was  used,  the 
bacterial  count  was  3,439,000  per  cubic  centimeter, 
as  compared  with  6,600  with  the  small  top  pail. 
The  use  of  the  damp  cloth  in  wiping  the  udders 
and  flanks  of  the  cows  before  milking  is  very  im- 
portant in  reducing  the  bacterial  count.  It  was 
found  that  where  this  was  practiced  in  one  instance, 
the  number  of  bacteria  in  the  milk  was  716  per  cubic 
centimeter,  as  compared  with  7,058  per  cubic  centi- 
meter where  the  moist  cloth  was  not  used. 

Public  opinion  is  yearly  becoming  more  insistent 
in  its  demands  for  elimination  of  infectious  diseases 


132  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

from  herds  furnishing  milk  for  public  use.  This 
refers  especially  to  tuberculosis.  It  is  unfortunately 
a  fact  that  many  thousands  of  cows  which  now  fur- 
nish milk  to  the  cities  are  in  various  stages  of  this 
disease.  There  is  no  longer  any  doubt  that  it  is 
possible  for  this  scourge  to  be  communicated  to 
human  beings  through  the  medium  of  milk.  The 
time  is  near  at  hand  when  those  dairymen  who  do 
not  voluntarily  clean  up  their  herds  by  m,eans  of 
the  tuberculin  test,  will  be  compelled  to  do  so  by 
force  of  public  opinion  expressed  through  ordi- 
nances and  state  laws.  This  elimination  of  tuber- 
cular cows  will  not  prove  the  hardship  that  it 
seems.  It  is  inconceivable  that  a  cow  suffering 
from  this  disease  in  any  advanced  form,  can  pos- 
sibly be  a  paying  proposition  to  the  dairyman.  The 
disease  will  have  so  impaired  her  efficiency  as  a  milk 
producer  that,  in  a  great  majority  of  cases,  she  will 
not  be  paying  for  the  feed  she  consumes.  A  care- 
ful test  of  dairy  cows  suffering  from  this  disease 
would  undoubtedly  demonstrate  this  fact. 

Good  dairy  barns  are  one  of  the  requirements  for 
profits  in  this  business.  These  barns  are  as  neces- 
sary to  protect  the  cows  from  heat  and  flies  in  sum- 
mer as  from  cold  and  exposure  in  winter.  Just 
what  the  type  of  barn  shall  be  depends  upon  the 
taste  of  the  farmer,  and  upon  the  money  he  wishes 
to  invest  in  the  building.  This  much  should  be 
common  to  all  barns  :  that  perfect  ventilation 
should  be  provided  in  some  manner  so  that  the 
stock  need  not  be  exposed  to  the  direct  action  of 
cold  winds  in  winter.  It  is  not  desirable  to  have 
the  barn  uncomfortably  warm  in  cold  weather,  but 
rather  to  have  a  reasonable  temperature  and  fresh, 
pure  air  at  all  times  of  the  day  and  night.  The 
problem  of  keeping  a  dairy  barn  clean  and  free  from 


PROFIT   FROM   THE  DAIRY 


133 


dust  and  obnoxious  odors  which  are  readily  ab- 
sorbed by  milk  is  one  of  the  difficult  phases  of  this 
business.  The  problem  of  affording  sufficient  pro- 
tection, and  at  the  same  time  giving  cows  enough 
exercise  and  enough  pure  air  to  keep  them  in  health- 
ful condition,  is  a  grave  one.  The  closely  built, 
tightly  closed  dairy  barns  of  the  East  and  middle 
West  have  undoubtedly  been  responsible  for  the 
development  and  spread  of  tuberculosis  in  a  large 


A    MICHIGAN    DAIRY    BARN   AND    SILO 


number  of  valuable  herds  in  that  region.  Ventila- 
tion is  a  phase  which  has  always  received  too  little 
attention  at  the  hands  of  the  farmer. 

A  type  of  barn  or  shelter  for  dairy  stock  which 
seems  very  satisfactory,  not  only  in  protecting  the 
animals  and  maintaining  their  health,  but  also  in 
reducing  materially  the  amount  of  labor  required 
in  caring  for  them,  is  found  in  a  sort  of  covered 
barnyard.  This  consists  of  a  covered  yard  or  room 
where  the  cows  are  allowed  to  run  loose  in  winter 
and  has  only  a  few  stalls  in  which  the  cows  are 
fastened  while  being  milked.  This  suffices  equally 
as  well  where  milking  machines  are  used  as  where 


134  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

hand  milking  is  done.  The  relative  cheapness  of  a 
structure  of  this  sort  makes  it  possible  to  give  each 
animal  a  large  amount  of  room  and  a  large  amount 
of  air  space.  Movable  racks  are  placed  at  con- 
venient intervals  for  containing  the  feed  for  the 
cows,  and  they  are  allowed  to  help  themselves, 
except  to  the  concentrated  feeds,  which  are  given 
during  milking  time.  By  this  method  most  of  the 
manure  is  deposited  near  the  feed  racks  and  is  so 
thoroughly  tramped  and  mixed  with  straw  or  other 
litter  furnished  for  bedding  as  to  practically  ex- 
clude air.  Little  or  no  heating  takes  place,  and 
there  is  no  loss  of  fertility  through  leaching  or  any 
of  the  processes  which  take  place  when  the  manure 
is  piled  in  heaps  in  the  open  air. 

The  problem  of  keeping  the  cows  clean  is  a  sim- 
ple one  and  consists  in  supplying  plenty  of  bedding. 
Straw  is  usually  very  cheap  and  can  be  had  in  un- 
limited amounts  under  most  conditions.  Shredded 
corn  fodder  also  makes  an  excellent  bedding  for 
cows,  and  is  used  with  great  success  by  some  dairy- 
men for  this  purpose.  After  the  cows  have  eaten 
all  of  the  fodder  they  will,  there  will  be  consider- 
able quantities  left  which  are  not  edible,  but  which 
will  make  very  good  bedding.  It  has  great  ab- 
sorbent properties  and  is  especially  desirable  on 
this  account.  Cows  managed  in  a  yard  of  this  kind 
will  undoubtedly  have  better  health,  because  they 
are  free  to  move  about,  receive  more  air  and  have 
access  to  water  as  they  desire  instead  of  stated  in- 
tervals. Air,  sunlight  and  cleanliness  are  essential 
in  every  dairy  barn  of  whatever  type. 

ILLINOIS  DAIRY  EXPERIENCE 

The  question  of  the  returns  from  market  dairy- 
ing, or  the  making  of  milk  for  the  city  markets,  is 


PROFIT    FROM    THE   DAIRY  135 

one  which  has  attracted  much  interest  and  discus- 
sion within  recent  years  in  all  the  large  dairy  sec- 
tions of  the  country.  This  is  especially  true  in  the 
dairy  districts  which  furnish  the  milk  supply  of 
Chicago.  Farmers,  on  one  hand,  claim  that  the  high 
cost  of  feed  and  labor  has  made  the  production  of 
milk  at  present  prices  unprofitable,  or  at  best  given 
only  a  narrow  margin  of  profit.  The  distributors 
say  that  the  increased  cost  of  handling  the  milk, 
due  to  more  stringent  sanitary  regulations,  as  well 
as  to  the  general  increase  in  labor  and  other  ex- 
pense items,  has  made  it  imperative  that  they  re- 
ceive more  money. 

This  contention  between  the  producer  and  the 
distributor  has  resulted  in  the  formation  of  associa- 
tions among  the  farmers  calculated  to  insist  upon 
higher  wholesale  prices.  Whether  or  not  any  ap- 
preciable gain  will  come  to  the  farmer  through  agi- 
tation, it  is  certain  that  somebody  was  getting  I  cent 
per  quart  more  for  milk  in  1910  than  in  1909,  be- 
cause the  consumer  had  to  pay  8  cents  then,  instead 
of  the  7  cents  formerly  demanded. 

There  is  no  question  that  the  expense  of  pro- 
ducing milk  has  risen  very  materially  and  much 
out  of  proportion  to  any  trifling  increase  farmers 
may  have  received  for  their  product.  However  this 
may  be,  there  are  dairymen  who  have  made  profits 
even  under  the  most  unfavorable  conditions  of  pro- 
duction, cost  and  the  markets.  The  average  dairy- 
man has  likely  just  about  been  holding  his  own, 
while  there  is  a  considerable  class  of  farmers  of 
indifferent  methods,  whose  dairy  operations  are  re- 
turning them  a  net  loss.  The  dairymen  who  have 
put  the  maximum  amount  of  intelligence  and  busi- 
ness management  into  the  conduct  of  their  business 
are  not  seriously  complaining  about  low  markets 


136  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

nor  decreased  gains.  By  attention  to  details  and 
by  the  utilization  of  the  most  approved  methods  of 
dairy  and  farm  management,  they  have  been  able  to 
offset  the  increased  cost  of  production  by  a  corres- 
ponding increase  in  efficiency  of  their  milk-produc- 
ing machinery.  They  have  increased  the  producing 
capacity  of  their  cows  by  selection  and  intelligent 
feeding,  and  have  kept  down  operating  expenses  by 
the  installment  of  labor-saving  machinery. 

For  instance,  one  cow  will  produce  6,000  pounds 
of  milk  per  year,  with  practically  the  same  feed 
consumption  as  another  cow  which  produces  only 
4,000  pounds  per  year.  This  difference  in  produc- 
tion represents  the  difference  in  efficiency  of  the 
two  animals.  The  wise  dairyman  who  has  dis- 
carded the  4,ooo-pound  kind  of  cows  and  given  his 
feed  to  the  6,ooo-pound  sort  is  the  man  who  is  not 
seriously  complaining  about  the  milk  market. 

Granting  that  market  conditions,  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction and  the  increased  expense  of  feed  and  labor 
have  worked  a  hardship  upon  the  average  dairy- 
man, the  experience  and  methods  of  such  farmers 
as  have  been  able  to  overcome  these  unfavorable 
conditions  should  be  of  especial  interest  and  value. 
Definite  facts  and  figures  are  hard  to  obtain.  Com- 
paratively few  farmers,  even  after  all  that  has  been 
said  as  to  keeping  farm  accounts,  have  any  actual 
figures  upon  which  to  base  definite  estimates.  The 
experience,  therefore,  of  a  man  who  can  show  ex- 
actly to  the  cent  the  results  of  his  year's  dairying 
operations  is  of  great  interest.  The  figures  fur- 
nished by  F.  B.  Pratt  of  Du  Page  county,  111.,  cov- 
ering his  dairy  operations  of  1909,  have  created  a 
great  deal  of  comment  in  the  local  and  agricultural 
press  and  are  well  worthy  of  consideration. 

It  should  be  said  in  advance  that  Mr.  Pratt  is 


PROFIT  FROM   THE  DAIRY  137 

the  manager  of  a  large  stock  farm,  which  demands 
all  his  own  time,  and  conducts  his  dairy  as  a  side 
issue,  depending  entirely  upon  hired  labor,  under 
his  more  or  less  personal  supervision. 

His  farm  consists  of  131  ^  acres,  in  addition  to 
which  he  handles  80  acres  of  rented  land.  In  1909 
his  crops  consisted  of  60  acres  of  corn,  30  of  which 
were  placed  in  the  silo  and  30  husked  from  the 
shock,  20  acres  of  alsike  clover,  20  acres  of  red 
clover  and  timothy  and  four  acres  of  rye.  He  had 
some  15  acres  of  oats  and  the  balance  of  the  land 
is  in  pasture.  Farm  equipment  includes  two  silos, 
an  i8-horse  power  gasoline  engine  for  running  the 
silage  cutter,  feed  grinders  and  pump,  and  such 
machinery  as  would  ordinarily  be  used  in  conduct- 
ing a  farm  of  this  size. 

His  milking  herd  consisted  of  59  head  of  Hoi- 
steins,  five  of  which  were  pure  bred,  and  the  bal- 
ance were  high  grade.  The  milk  from  this  herd 
was  sold  to  the  condenseries  at  current  market 
price,  absolutely  no  advantage  in  price  being  re- 
ceived for  the  excellent  sanitary  conditions  under 
which  it  was  produced.  Contrary  to  the  average 
dairy,  the  greatest  output  from  this  farm  was  in 
the  winter  months,  although  the  amount  sold  re- 
mained fairly  equal  throughout  the  year,  varying 
from  32,000  to  42,000  pounds  monthly.  The  total 
amount  sold  to  the  condensery  amounted  to  426,150 
pounds.  Adding  to  this  18,360  pounds  fed  calves 
and  3,876  sold  locally,  the  total  production  of  this 
herd  was  448,396  pounds,  or  7,600  pounds  of  milk  for 
each  cow.  The  average  price  paid  was  $1.40  per 
hundred,  making  the  gross  production  per  cow 
$106.40. 


138          PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

FIGURES  ARE  CONCLUSIVE 

A  very  complete  book  account  was  kept  by  Mr. 
Pratt,  including  absolutely  all  expense  items,  in- 
cluding" also  depreciation  in  value  for  such  cows  as 
had  passed  the  age  of  greatest  value,  also  deteriora- 
tion of  machinery,  taxes  and  insurance,  and  allow- 
ing 5  per  cent  interest  upon  an  investment  of 
$20,000.  Every  item  which  could  reasonably  be 
charged  against  the  gross  operation  of  the  farm  was 
added  to  the  expense  account,  and  even  then  the 
net  profit  amounted  to  $1,977.40.  This  record  is  so 
remarkable  as  to  have  occasioned  doubts  of  its  ac- 
curacy among  some  well-informed  dairymen,  but 
Mr.  Pratt  has  the  figures,  the  bills  for  cash  ex- 
pended and  the  statements  of  the  condensery  as  to 
amount  of  milk  received,  and  the  figures  are  ab- 
solutely conclusive. 

After  ascertaining  the  fact  that  the  record  was 
actually  made  under  genuine  farm  conditions,  by 
a  dairy  operated  for  profit  and  not  for  pastime,  I 
was  especially  interested  in  learning  from  Mr. 
Pratt  the  methods  of  feeding  and  management 
which  contributed  to  this  result.  The  distribu- 
tion of  his  crop  has  already  been  described.  Very 
little  dependence  was  placed  upon  pasture,  its  prin- 
cipal use  being  to  give  the  animals  exercise  in  the 
fresh  air  daily.  All  feeding  was  done,  summer  and 
winter,  in  the  barn.  Stated  amounts  were  not  given 
each  animal,  but  the  amount  fed  was  gauged  rather 
by  the  consuming  and  producing  capacity  of  the 
animal.  The  previous  year's  supply  of  corn  silage 
lasted  until  June,  and  at  this  time  four  acres  of  rye 
and  three  of  alsike  clover  were  cut  and  placed  in 
the  silo  for  summer  feeding.  This  was  run  through 
the  silage  cutter  and  very  finely  chopped,  carefully 


PROFIT   FROM   THE   DAIRY  139 

packed  and  remained  in  excellent  condition  until 
entirely  consumed.  This  seven  acres  of  rye  and 
clover  Mr.  Pratt  considers  the  most  profitable  crop 
he  raised.  It  lasted  from  the  middle  of  June  until 
September,  when  the  new  corn  silage  was  ready 
to  use.  He  fed  the  cows  all  they  would  eat  of  it, 
and  assured  me  that  the  results  from  its  use  were 
of  greatest  benefit  in  maintaining  the  flow  of  milk 
during  the  period  of  the  summer  when  the  dairy- 
men depending  upon  pasture  always  figure  on  a 
heavy  decrease  in  production. 

SILOS  FURNISH  MOST  FEED 

His  two  silos  are  filled  with  finely-chopped  corn 
silage  in  September,  and  this  feed  supply  will 
easily  last  until  the  coming  June,  when  some  of  the 
summer  silage  will  be  ready  for  use.  The  grain 
ration  consists  of  equal  parts  of  finely  ground  corn 
and  cob  meal,  dried  brewers'  grains,  bran  and  wheat 
middlings.  The  silage  and  grain  are  fed  night  and 
morning  and  clover  hay  at  noon. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  management  of  this  farm 
that  cannot  be  duplicated  upon  any  farm  in  Illinois. 
The  two  factors  of  its  success  are:  First,  using 
cows  of  high-producing  capacity.  Second,  utilizing 
by  means  of  the  silo  the  best  dairy  feed,  and  the 
absolute  elimination  of  waste  by  feeding  in  the 
barn  throughout  the  year.  Such  feeds  as  brewers' 
grain  and  shorts,  which  are  purchased  on  the  mar- 
ket, Mr.  Pratt  buys  early  in  the  season  in  carload 
lots,  instead  of  paying  the  advanced  prices  de- 
manded later  in  the  year.  Results  upon  similar 
farms  in  the  same  county,  figuring  absolutely  the 
same  items  of  expense  and  receipts,  figuring  the 
same  interest  upon  land  valuation  and  the  same  cost 


140  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

for  labor,  show  an  absolute  net  loss  of  $4  to  $5  per 
day.  The  difference  between  the  approximate 
$2,000  loss  and  $2,000  profit  represents  the  differ- 
ence in  the  standards  of  efficiency  and  management 
of  the  two  farms. 

PAYS  TO  RAISE  CALVES 

How  to  profitably  raise  calves  for  use  in  building 
up  the  standard  of  dairy  herds  has  always  been  a 
puzzling  question  to  the  farmers  producing  milk 
for  city  markets,  where  there  is  no  skim  milk  or  by- 
products of  any  kind  to  feed  young  animals.  As 
we  noted  before,  Mr.  Pratt  fed  more  than  18,000 
pounds  of  this  expensive  milk  to  fifteen  head  of 
calves.  "Isn't  this  a  rather  expensive  method  of 
producing  stock,"  I  inquired  of  Mr.  Pratt.  "Well, 
I  fed  this  18,000  pounds  of  milk,  which  was  worth 
$235  upon  the  market,  to  fifteen  head  of  Holstein 
calves.  I  sold  three  or  four  of  these  the  other  day 
for  $50  per  head.  These  were  not  pure  breds,  but 
simply  well-graded  calves.  I  can  secure  this  aver- 
age for  the  whole  bunch.  In  other  words,  I  will 
sell  for  $750  animals  that  were  produced  with  $235 
worth  of  milk. 

"At  the  present  values  of  good  dairy  stock  it 
pays  to  feed  this  expensive  market  milk  to  the 
calves.  I  feed  them  until  they  are  three  months 
old,  gradually  introducing  crushed  oats  and  other 
easily  assimilated  feeds  until  the  complete  change 
is  made  from  milk  to  dry  feed,  without  any  serious 
detriment  to  the  growth  of  the  young  animal.  Under 
present  conditions  I  do  not  think  the  making  of 
milk  for  market,  profitable  as  it  has  proved  for  me, 
represents  the  greatest  or  most  profitable  type  of 
dairy  farming.  I  intend  to  install  very  shortly  a 


PROFIT  FROM   THE  DAIRY  14! 

complete  apparatus  for  churning  and  handling 
butter  upon  my  farm.  Some  of  the  best  butter- 
makers  are  now  obtaining  5  pounds  of  butter  for 
each  hundred  pounds  of  milk.  Even  if  I  can  only 
secure  4^2  pounds  per  hundred  pounds  of  milk,  I 
figure  that  I  can  secure  as  great  cash  returns  as 
though  the  milk  were  sold  upon  the  market,  and 
have  left  as  clear  gain  the  skim  milk,  which  I  shall 
utilize  in  feeding  calves  and  pigs. 

"Four  and  one-half  pounds  of  butter,  which 
ought  to  bring  30  cents  per  pound,  amounts  to 
$1.35,  or  within  5  cents  per  hundred  pounds  of  my 
last  year's  average  for  market  milk.  The  by- 
product in  the  form  of  skim  milk  retained  upon  the 
farm  and  fed  to  young  stock  ought  to  increase  the 
profits  by  one-half.  In  addition  to  this  we  will  be 
spared  the  labor  and  expense  of  making  daily  de- 
liveries of  the  large  bulk  of  the  milk  output. 

"I  think  it  is  probably  true  that  the  distributor 
exacts  too  great  a  profit,  yet  I  am  sure  that  the 
ultimate  success  of  the  dairy  industry  does  not 
depend  so  much  upon  boosting  the  price  as  it  does 
upon  the  development  of  more  intelligent  methods 
of  dairying.  The  percentage  of  profit  or  loss  from 
dairying  operations  in  this  county  is  pretty  accu- 
rately measured  by  the  degree  of  skill  and  special 
management  which  the  individual  dairyman  de- 
votes to  his  business." 

INDIRECT    RESULTS    OF    DAIRYING 

The  economical  handling  of  manure  produced  by 
dairy  animals  for  the  enrichment  of  the  soil  is  by 
no  means  the  least  important  consideration  in  de- 
termining the  merits  of  the  industry.  The  soil  of 
exclusive  dairy  sections  is  usually  very  rich  after 


142 


PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 


a  few  years  of  dairying,  because  not  only  is  all  the 
grain  and  forage  produced  upon  this  land  returned 
to  it  in  the  form  of  manure,  but  large  quantities  of 
concentrated  feeds  are  purchased  from  outside 
sources  and  fertility  is  also  gained  by  the  dairy  farm. 
The  indirect  returns  from  dairying  are  deserving 
of  fully  as  much  consideration  as  the  immediate 
financial  results.  The  most  highly  developed  type 
of  dairying  in  regions  of  heavy  forage  and  grain 
production  can,  by  using  the  silo  for  preserving 
winter  feed  and  by  feeding  soiling  crops  in  sum- 
mer, maintain  one  cow  per  acre  of  land.  Very  few 


ELEVATION    OF    DAIRY    BARN 


are  doing  this,  it  is  true,  but  it  can  be 
done,  and  is  being  done  in  some  notable  in- 
stances. The  American  dairyman  should  get 
rid  of  a  few  of  his  cows  and  double  the  produc- 
ing capacity  of  those  he  keeps.  This  improvement 
in  quality  is  the  most  imperative  need  of  the  indus- 
try at  this  time.  Coupled  with  this  must  be  heavy, 
intelligent  feeding.  Return  to  the  soil  of  the  dairy 


PROFIT   FROM   THE  DAIRY 


143 


farm  the  tremendous  amounts  of  valuable  fertility 
produced  by  the  stock  in  order  to  raise  still  larger 
crops  the  following  year.  The  effect  will  be 
cumulative. 

Greater  fertility  will  produce  heavier  crops. 
This,  in  turn,  will  maintain  more  live  stock 
and  the  process  will  be  repeated  in  some  degree 
each  succeeding  year  until  the  maximum  producing 
capacity  of  the  land  is  reached.  There  is  scarcely 


l~'^----Y:7^~:;\~"F\lF^  ++' 
1^' ;  I  i  i  i  i  id~HrH  Mill  i  ri±Lf!dfC 

j  «.„„,«,   w.r  if      «.^v,w., 

I/  "    T  ~"\'~ " 


^ 


GROUND  PLAN  OF  DAIRY  BARN 

a  farm  in  the  country  today  which  has  ever  been 
made  to  produce  its  maximum  amount.  The  time 
is  rapidly  approaching  when  the  insistent  de- 
mands of  an  unsupplied  market  will  drive  the 
American  farmer  and  dairyman  to  more  inten- 
sive methods  and  will  compel  a  largely  in- 
creased return  from  each  acre  of  land  now  cul- 
tivated. The  field  for  intelligence  and  special  man- 
agement is  no  greater  in  any  line  of  business  than 
is  found  in  the  dairy  industry  today.  There  is  no 


144          PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

field  which  promises  greater  returns  for  the  money 
and  skill  expended,  yet  there  is  no  industry  which, 
on  an  average,  under  present  conditions,  pays  a 
smaller  percentage.  The  instances  are  many  where 
large  profits  are  made  both  in  direct  returns  and 
in  the  upbuilding  of  the  soil,  but  the  average  re- 
mains discouragingly  low.  It  is  high  time  for  the 
American  farmer  to  awaken  to  his  opportunities  in 
this  field,  and  to  get  out  of  this  important  industry 
the  wealth  that  lies  hidden  in  it. 


CHAPTER  XI 

Sheep  Under  Form  Conditions 

The  sheep  is  known  to  have  been  under  domes- 
tication longer  than  any  other  animal.  Whether 
it  was  originally  one  of  the  species  of  wild  sheep 
still  found  in  uninhabited  places,  or  whether  it  is 
a  descendant  of  one  of  the  wild  species  now  extinct 
is  an  undecided  question.  It  has  been  under  the 
control  of  man  for  so  many  generations  that  it  has 
lost  all  of  the  original  wild  animal  characteristics, 
and  is  the  most  helpless  and  incapable  of  self- 
preservation  of  any  of  the  domestic  animals.  Cer- 
tain it  is  that  long  before  the  most  remote  legendary 
and  Biblical  times,  the  sheep  was  thoroughly  do- 
mesticated, and  was  one  of  the  most  important 
animals.  In  the  western  movement  of  settlement 
across  Europe  and  later  across  the  Atlantic,  this 
animal  has  always  been  in  the  advance  guard  of 
civilization.  It  was  brought  to  America  by  Colum- 
bus and  subsequent  Spanish  explorers,  and  rapidly 
obtained  a  foothold  in  the  West  Indies,  Central  and 
South  America  and  Florida.  Later,  the  early  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch  settlers  in  New  England  and  New 
York  brought  numbers  of  sheep  with  them,  with 
the  expectation  of  developing  sheep  growing  in 
their  new  colonies.  Naturally,  the  Spanish  im- 
portations consisted  of  the  fine  wooled  Merinos 
which,  at  that  time,  made  Spain  famous  as  the 
world's  leader  in  the  production  of  fine  wool  and 
fabrics;  while  the  sheep  imported  to  the  North 
were  of  the  large,  coarse-wooled  varieties  from 
England  and  the  north  of  Europe. 

145 


146  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

Sheep,  in  the  northern  part  of  America,  did  not 
thrive  and  increase  very  rapidly  until  late  in  the 
colonial  period,  principally  on  account  of  the  depre- 
dations of  wild  animals,  and  because  of  oppressive 
trade  regulations  imposed  by  the  mother  country. 
In  striking  contrast  was  the  development  of  the 
sheep-growing  industry  in  all  of  the  Spanish- 
American  colonies.  The  original  stock  introduced 
into  the  West  Indies  and  Yucatan  was  carefully 
preserved,  and  under  the  intelligent  and  fostering 
care  of  the  Spanish  government,  the  number  of 
sheep  rapidly  increased.  They  spread  over  the 
country  with  the  same  rapidity  as  the  early  Span- 
ish settlers,  soon  obtaining  a  foothold  in  Mexico 
and  spreading  from  there  northward  into  Texas, 
New  Mexico  and  California.  As  early  as  1560,  it 
was  written  by  a  Spanish  historian  that  "  much 
woolen  cloth  was  made  this  year  in  New  Spain." 
By  1750,  sheep  were  very  abundant  in  the  Spanish 
province  which  is  now  New  Mexico,  and  in  1773 
they  had  spread  into  southern  California.  From 
1775  to  1850  was  the  period  of  greatest  Spanish 
activity  in  California,  when  many  missions  were 
established,  and  the  first  beginnings  of  permanent 
settlement  were  made.  Every  Spanish  mission 
owned  and  fostered  its  large  flocks  of  sheep,  and 
by  1825  the  17  missions  between  San  Diego  and 
San  Francisco  owned  more  than  1,000,000  sheep.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  early  ranchers  of  that  period 
owned,  perhaps,  as  many  more.  All  of  these  south- 
western sheep  were  of  the  Merino  type,  being  rela- 
tively heavy  wool  producers  and  very  light  meat 
producers. 

At  a  period  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the 
present  territory  of  New  Mexico  supported  prob- 
ably a  greater  number  of  sheep  than  it  does 


SHEEP    UNDER    FARM    CONDITIONS  147 

now.  When  the  rush  to  the  gold  fields  in  Cali- 
fornia began  in  1849,  creating  suddenly  an  abnormal 
demand  for  food  products  of  all  kinds,  many  of  the 
earlySpanish  sheepmen  of  this  territory  trailed  enor- 
mous flocks  from  the  ranges  of  New  Mexico  across 
the  mountains,  down  the  Gila  and  Salt  rivers  to 
the  Colorado,  crossing  at  a  point  near  the  present 
site  of  Yuma,  then  across  the  Mojave  desert  of  Cali- 
fornia, across  the  Sierras  and  up  the  coast  to  San 
Francisco,  where  they  were  disposed  of  to  the 
miners,  during  the  first  few  years,  at  extremely  high 
prices,  and  brought  heavy  profits  to  their  owners, 
in  spite  of  the  i,ooo-mile  overland  march  to  market. 
The  foundation  stock  of  the  entire  western  range, 
which  now  supports  approximately  70  per  cent  of 
the  sheep  of  the  United  States,  came  from  these  old 
Spanish  Merino  herds. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  the  sheep 
industry  has  varied  greatly  at  different  periods. 
At  times  the  craze  for  fine-wooled  sheep  has  taken 
possession  of  the  entire  sheep-growing  sections, 
and  fancy  Merinos  have  sold  at  most  exorbitant 
figures.  At  other  times,  the  popular  fancy  has 
tended  to  the  coarse-wooled  mutton  breeds,  and 
the  importations  from  English  sources  have  been 
correspondingly  heavy.  The  East  reached  its 
highest  point  in  sheep  production  in  the  decade 
following  the  civil  war,  when  the  territory  east  of 
the  Mississippi  supported  a  little  more  than  24,- 
000,000  head,  against  11,000,000  owned  west  of  the 
Mississippi.  From  this  time  on  the  ratio  has 
steadily  changed,  the  East  gradually  losing  interest 
in  the  industry  on  account  of  the  competition  of 
the  free  western  ranges,  because  of  the  greater 
profits  to  be  had  from  grain  farming,  and  from 
other  forms  of  live  stock,  because  of  cheap  wool 


148  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

and  a  small  market  demand  for  mutton,  until  at 
present  the  territory  east  of  the  Mississippi  has  but 
17,675,000  head,  while  the  western  farms  and 
ranges  carry  38,328,000  head. 

THE  DUAL-PURPOSE  TYPE 

The  changing  conditions  of  the  past  20  years, 
which  have  caused  the  constant  decrease  in  beef 
production  as  compared  with  the  population  in  the 
United  States,  has  led  to  a  constantly  increasing 
market  demand  for  mutton.  Several  of  our  great 
cities  today  demand  more  than  a  million  head  of 
sheep  yearly  to  supply  their  local  meat  trade,  while 
a  few  years  ago  only  a  negligible  quantity  of  mut- 
ton was  required.  The  land  upon  which  sheep 
are  grown  has  constantly  increased  in  value.  Even 
upon  the  free  land  of  the  western  ranges,  mainte- 
nance expenses  have  very  materially  increased,  so 
that  it  has  become  no  longer  profitable  to  raise 
sheep  for  the  wool  alone,  as  was  commonly  done 
in  the  earlier  history  of  the  country.  These  chang- 
ing conditions  have  led  to  a  demand  for  a  dual-pur- 
pose type  of  sheep  which  will  produce  a  reason- 
able fleece,  and  still  be  of  sufficient  weight  and 
mutton  quality  that  it  will  dress  out  a  fair  per- 
centage of  meat  when  placed  upon  the  market. 
There  are  probably  no  conditions  in  the  United 
States  today  which  will  justify  the  raising,  on  a 
commercial  basis,  of  sheep  either  for  wool  or  for 
mutton  alone.  This  type  of  breeding  is  left  en- 
tirely to  the  breeders  of  registered  animals,  and  is 
not  practiced  by  the  breeders  of  ordinary  market 
sheep.  Farm  conditions  demand  a  type  of  sheep 
which  will  shear  at  least  nine  or  ten  pounds  of  wool 
and  which  will  produce  a  lamb  which  may  be  mar- 


SHEEP   UNDER   FARM    CONDITIONS  149 

keted  under  a  year  old  at  a  weight  of  85  to  90 
pounds.  This  type  has  been  developed  by  a  blend- 
ing of  the  extreme  wool-producing  tendencies  of 
the  Merino,  and  other  fine  wool  breeds,  with  the 
blocky  mutton  form  of  the  English  mutton  breeds. 
Probably  the  most  common  course  in  developing 
this  type  has  been  the  use  of  Shropshire  rams  upon 
the  common  Merino  foundation  stock.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  in  the  western  range  country.  When 
lambs  sell,  as  they  have  in  recent  years,  as  high  as 
5^2  cents  per  pound  on  the  open  range,  and, 
when  fattened,  for  as  high  as  10  cents  per  pound 
on  the  Chicago  market,  it  can  readily  be  seen 
that  we  are  far  removed  from  the  day  when  sheep 
could  be  grown  for  wool  alone. 

BREEDING   FOR   WOOL   AND  MUTTON 

This  demand  for  a  combined  wool  and  mutton 
type  has  shown  its  result  in  marked  change  in  the 
characteristics  of  the  foundation  stock  of  the  coun- 
try, both  in  the  large  flocks  of  the  West  and  under 
farm  conditions  in  the  East.  While  the  Merino 
characteristics  are  still  easily  discernible,  the  con- 
tinued intelligent  selection  of  the  dual-purpose  type, 
and  the  long-continued  use  of  rams  from  the  Shrop- 
shire and  other  mutton  breeds,  have  produced 
breeding  stock  which,  to  a  large  degree,  represents 
the  dual-purpose  ideal  toward  which  progressive 
breeders  have  been  striving  for  the  past  20  years. 
The  wool-producing  characteristics  have  been  pre- 
served by  the  occasional  use  of  Rambouillet  or 
Merino  rams  when  it  was  seen  that  the  type  was 
inclining  too  much  to  mutton  form  or  when  the 
weight  of  the  fleeces  began  to  decrease. 

In  recent  years  the  fattening  of  lambs  for  market 


I5O  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

has  become  an  industry  of  large  proportions,  and 
the  feeders  from  eastern  farms  and  from  the  west- 
ern mountain  valleys  have  searched  for  lambs  of 
the  most  desirable  feeding  type.  This  has  led  to 
the  practice  on  the  part  of  some  sheep  breeders  of 
using  rams  of  the  extremely  heavy  mutton  type, 
such  as  Lincoln  or  Hampshires,  upon  the  common 
grade  ewe,  with  the  result  that  an  unusually  large, 
heavy  mutton  form  lamb  was  produced  to  be  placed 
in  the  feed  lot  at  five  months  old.  This  has  given 
the  feeders  a  lamb  of  large  frame  and  great  feed- 
consuming  capacity  and  a  resulting  heavier-dressed 
carcass  has  appeared  in  the  markets.  This  prac- 
tice has  been  very  successful  in  cases  where  all  the 
lambs  were  intended  for  sale.  The  cross,  however, 
is  so  violent  that  the  product  has  not  been  satisfac- 
tory when  part  of  the  lambs  are  kept  for  future 
breeding.  Generally,  whether  under  farm  or  range 
conditions,  a  desirable  dual-purpose  type  of  sheep 
may  be  maintained  by  intelligent  selection  of  breed- 
ing ewes,  and  the  alternation  as  needed  of  the  type 
of  ram,  using  the  mutton  breeds  when  the  stock 
begins  to  incline  too  much  to  fineness  of  wool,  and 
using  Rambouillet  or  Merino  rams  when  the  coarse- 
wooled  mutton  type  begins  to  predominate  too 
largely. 

MANAGEMENT    OF    BREEDING    SHEEP 

The  feeding  and  management  of  breeding 
animals  of  any  class  differs  very  materially  from 
that  of  animals  intended  for  the  block.  This  is 
especially  true  of  sheep.  The  ewe  lambs  which 
are  intended  for  future  breeding  should  be  selected 
as  early  as  possible,  preferably  just  after  weaning, 
choosing  only  those  which  conform  most  nearly  to 


SHEEP   UNDER   FARM    CONDITIONS  151 

the  desired  type.  At  this  time  it  is  impossible  to 
determine  just  what  animals  are  best,  because  of 
their  immature  development,  but  the  poor  ones  can 
easily  be  eliminated  later  on  as  age  and  develop- 
ment demonstrate  their  unfitness.  These  selected 
lambs  should  be  kept  constantly  growing,  since  any 
setback  in  their  development  will  never  be  en- 
tirely overcome  by  any  subsequent  care  that  may 
be  given.  Good,  fresh  pasture  is  the  prime  req- 
uisite for  the  most  satisfactory  growth  of  lambs. 
Provision  should  be  made  for  supplementary  graz- 
ing for  late  summer  and  early  fall,  when  the  or- 
dinary clover  and  blue  grass  pastures  are  likely  to 
become  dry  and  poor.  The  stubble  may  be  utilized 
to  good  advantage  at  this  time,  or  a  number  of 
autumn  grazing  crops  such  as  rye  or  rape,  sown 
in  the  growing  corn,  may  be  used. 

DESIRABLE    FEEDS 

The  method  of  feeding  depends  very  much  upon 
local  conditions.  The  feeds  given  will  depend 
largely  upon  the  character  of  the  crops  produced 
upon  the  farm.  Under  ranch  conditions,  the  range 
is  depended  upon,  to  a  large  extent,  for  winter  sus- 
tenance as  well  as  for  summer,  and  alfalfa  or 
timothy  hay  will  be  practically  the  only  feed  avail- 
able. This  is  usually  used  only  in  times  of  severe 
storms.  The  best  eastern  farmers  who  keep  sheep 
depend  largely  upon  clover  hay  and  roots  for  the 
feed  for  their  breeding  sheep  in  winter.  It  will 
usually  pay  to  feed  a  small  grain  ration  even  though 
the  animals  are  already  in  good  condition.  Just 
what  this  grain  ration  will  be  will  depend  consid- 
erably upon  the  kind  and  condition  of  the  rough 
feed.  If  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  is  being  used  quite 


152  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

liberally,  a  small  ration  of  cracked  corn  and,  per- 
haps, a  little  oil  meal  occasionally,  will  serve  to  bal- 
ance up  the  ration  very  evenly.  In  case  mixed 
hay  and  grasses  or  oat  straw  is  being  used,  the 
ration  should  include  some  grain  rich  in  protein. 
Bran  or  oats  mixed  with  the  corn  will  serve  to 
supply  this  need.  The  oil  meal  should  always  be 
fed  in  the  lump  form  to  sheep,  as  they  seem  to  relish 
it  more.  It  is  best  fed  mixed  with  bran  or  cracked 
grain. 

Succulent  feed  of  some  sort  is  essential  to  the 
best  development  of  sheep  under  farm  conditions. 
This  need  may  be  met  in  a  number  of  ways.  Vari- 
ous root  crops  may  be  grown  which  are  easily 
stored  throughout  the  winter,  and  which  furnish  a 
very  satisfactory  addition  to  the  ration.  Sugar 
beets  are  probably  the  best  crop  which  can  be 
grown  for  this  purpose.  The  English  and  Scotch 
shepherds  are  very  partial  to  turnips  for  their 
sheep  feed,  and  these  may  be  grown  almost  any 
place  in  this  country  in  liberal  quantities.  Ruta- 
bagas, mangel-wurzels  and  other  roots  form  very 
satisfactory  succulent  feeds.  The  roots  should  be 
fed  finely  chopped  or  sliced,  so  that  there  will  be  no- 
danger  of  choking.  Where  roots  are  not  available, 
silage  is  an  excellent  winter  feed,  furnishing  not 
only  succulence,  but  having  a  high  degree  of  nutri- 
ment. Sheep  will  learn  to  eat  it  very  readily,  and 
relish  it.  There  is  frequently  danger  in  feeding  it 
in  a  frozen  condition,  and  this  should  be  guarded 
against,  as  best  results  will  not  be  possible  from 
its  use  for  any  kind  of  animals  while  in  this  con- 
dition. Frequently,  it  is  desirable  to  scatter  the 
grain  upon  the  silage,  so  that  the  entire  ration  will 
be  consumed  together.  Mr.  Richard  Gibson  of 
Ontario,  after  50  years  of  experience  in  sheep  breed- 


SHEEP   UNDER   FARM    CONDITIONS  153 

ing  and  management,  and  after  having  won  more 
prizes  for  fine  sheep  than  all  the  other  breeders  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada  combined,  says:  "I 
attribute  my  success  as  an  exhibitor  to  the  frequent 
feeding  of  a  great  variety  of  green  feeds  or  forage 
plants.  I  find  that, cabbage  and  kale  are  extremely 
valuable  green  feeds.  Turnips,  when  fully  ripe,  are 
also  fine."  It  will  usually  be  best  to  cut  down 
somewhat  the  amount  of  succulent  feed  given  for  a 
few  days  preceding  lambing  time,  and  then  increase 
it  gradually  to  its  maximum  after  the  lambs  are 
born. 

EXERCISE  IN  WINTER  ESSENTIAL 

The  ewes,  during  the  winter,  should  be  handled 
carefully  to  prevent  possible  injury.  Care  should 
always  be  taken  that  they  are  not  rushed  through 
narrow  doors,  nor  frightened  by  dogs,  nor  by 
strangers  going  through  the  yards.  It  is  also  im- 
portant that  they  have  plenty  of  exercise.  It  is 
usually  possible  to  give  them  access  to  large  yards 
or  to  some  open  field  where  they  may  browse  about 
a  straw  stack,  or  in  the  standing  corn  stalks,  on 
such  winter  days  as  the  weather  permits.  In  case 
of  long-continued,  heavy  snows,  when  this  sort  of 
exercise  is  not  possible,  a  passageway  should  be 
made  through  the  snow  from  one  barn  to  another, 
or  from  the  barn  to  the  feeding  racks  removed  to 
some  distance,  so  that  the  ewes  will  be  obliged  to 
take  exercise  enough  to  keep  them  in  vigorous  con- 
dition. Animals  which  have  been  kept  closely 
stabled  during  the  winter  have  frequently  borne 
lambs  which  were  so  weak  and  delicate  that  very 
few  of  them  survived.  This  was  due  entirely  to 
the  lack  of  exercise  on  the  part  of  the  mother.  It 
is  preferable  that  the  sheep  should  spend  as  much 


154  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

of  their  time  as  possible  in  the  open,  and  under 
ordinary  conditions  it  is  not  necessary  to  house 
them  in  tightly  closed  barns  if  a  comfortable  shed 
opening  into  a  roomy  barnyard  be  provided,  es- 
pecially if  the  barnyard  be  well  bedded  or  provided 
with  a  good-sized  straw  stack.  The  animals  will 
spend  most  of  their  time,  even  in  the  coldest  wrinter 
weather,  out  of  doors,  seeking  the  shelter  of  the 
shed  only  during  snowstorms  or  wet  weather. 
Their  heavy  winter  coat  protects  them  from  the 
air,  and  the  thick  bed  of  straw  will  prevent  any  ill 
effects  from  the  cold  ground.  Under  these  con- 
ditions, the  sheep  will  be  healthier  and  more  vigor- 
ous, 'and  will  come  through  the  winter  in  better 
condition  than  if  they  are  constantly  kept  in  a 
warm,  closed  barn.  The  water  supply,  it  is  need- 
less to  say,  should  be  ample  at  all  times,  but  ex- 
tremely cold  water  is  not  the  best,  especially  for 
pregnant  ewes.  Water  fresh  from  the  well  or  cis- 
tern, or  from  which  the  chill  has  been  removed  by 
means  of  a  tank  heater,  is  much  to  be  preferred  to 
ice  cold  water. 

The  winter  feeding  and  managing  of  rams  does 
not  differ  very  materially  from  the  keeping  of 
breeding  ewes,  except  that  it  is  not  advisable  to  feed 
a  heavy  ration  of  succulent  feed.  A  small  amount 
of  this  can  be  given  with  good  results,  but  it  is 
better  to  feed  a  larger  proportion  of  dry  feed. 
Plenty  of  exercise  is  essential  in  order  to  keep  the 
animals  in  robust  physical  condition,  and  this  de- 
tail should  not  be  overlooked. 

LAMBING  A  CRITICAL  TIME 

Lambing  time  is  the  most  critical  and  important 
period  in  the  life  of  the  flock.  At  this  time,  un- 
favorable conditions  or  a  little  neglect  on  the  part 


SHEEP   UNDER   FARM    CONDITIONS 


155 


of  the  farmer  may  result  in  the  loss  of  large  num- 
bers of  lambs,  and  the  normal  increase  of  the  herd 
wiped  out.  The  breeding  period  should  be  so 
timed  that  all  the  lambs  will  be  born  within  the 
shortest  possible  space  of  time,  and  in  this  manner 
constant  attention  can  be  given  during  a  lambing 
period.  Early  lambs  are  usually  more  profitable 
under  farm  conditions,  because  they  can  be  matured 


AN   IDAHO  LAMBING  SHED 

and  marketed  before  the  heavy  shipments  of  range 
lambs  begin.  Under  range  conditions,  it  is  not 
usually  possible  to  have  the  lambing  period  until 
the  weather  has  become  quite  warm,  as  few  of  the 
large  breeders  are  equipped  with  lambing  sheds  or 
other  shelter.  Good  warm  quarters  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  flock  during  lambing  time  are  essential 
to  the  successful  production  of  early  lambs.  It  is 
important  that  the  young  lamb  should  not  suffer 
from  cold  or  become  chilled  during  its  early  life, 
when  the  vitality  is  naturally  low.  Heavy  losses 
will  surely  occur  if  the  young  lambs  are  exposed  to 
cold  wind  or  to  the  rains  of  early  spring.  It  will 
be  necessary  to  give  a  lot  of  attention  to  the  flock 


156  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

during  this  period  to  make  sure  that  each  ewe 
recognizes  her  own  lamb  and  takes  care  of  it.  It 
will  always  pay  to  have  a  number  of  small  pens  in 
the  lambing  shed  into  which  the  ewes  with  their 
newly  born  lambs  may  be  placed  for  a  few  hours 
or  days  until  the  lamb  has  gained  a  little  strength 
and  until  the  mother  has  become  accustomed  to  her 
offspring. 

The  owner  should  be  careful  to  notice  whether 
the  lamb  sucks  during  the  first  few  hours 
of  its  life.  Occasionally  the  ewe  will  not  permit 
this,  and  in  some  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  hold 
the  ewe  and  teach  the  young  lamb  to  suck  by  giv- 
ing it  a  little  milk  with  a  spoon  to  begin  with. 
Sometimes  when  a  ewe  has  twins,  she  will  pay  at- 
tention to  only  one  of  them,  perhaps  the  larger  and 
stronger  one.  Such  a  contingency  as  this  must  be 
guarded  against.  Frequently,  it  is  possible  to  sep- 
arate the  twins,  giving  one  of  them  to  some  ewe 
whose  lamb  has  died.  Since  ewes  recognize  their 
lambs  by  means  of  the  sense  of  smell,  this  trick  of 
transferring  lambs  to  a  foster  mother  is  usually 
accomplished  by  tying  the  skin  of  the  dead  lamb 
on  the  live  one,  leaving  it  for  several  days  until  the 
ewe  has  become  used  to  the  adopted  lamb.  As 
soon  as  weather  conditions  permit,  the  ewes  with 
their  young  lambs  should  be  turned  out  in  open  lots 
or  pasture  during  the  warm  part  of  the  day,  but 
should  be  sheltered  at  night  until  the  lambs  have 
become  strong  and  have  a  protecting  coat  of  wool, 
because  the  chilly  spring  nights  are  apt  to  be  in- 
jurious to  them  if  unsheltered. 

FEEDING   EWES    AND    LAMBS 

The  feeding  of  ewes  after  lambing  does  not  differ 
radically  from  the  methods  already  outlined.  The 


SHEEP  UNDER   FARM    CONDITIONS  157 

object  of  feeding  at  this  period  should  be  not  only 
to  maintain  them  in  as  good  condition  of  flesh  as 
possible,  but  to  produce  at  the  same  time  a  heavy 
flow  of  milk.  Naturally,  the  ration  should  include 
as  large  a  proportion  as  is  thought  advisable  of 
succulent  feed,  and  such  forage  and  grain  as  will 
furnish  a  large  proportion  of  protein.  If  only  a 
limited  amount  of  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  be  avail- 
able, it  is  advisable  to  feed  corn  fodder  earlier  in 
the  season,  and  keep  this  hay  until  after  lambing, 
as  it  will,  at  this  time,  serve  for  best  results. 
Timothy  hay  and  prairie  hay  are  probably  the 
poorest  forage  feeds  which  can  be  given  at  this 
time,  and  their  use  should  be  supplemented  by 
liberal  amounts  of  bran  and  oats.  A  satisfactory 
ration  for  ewes  with  lambs  by  their  sides  will  be 
about  4  pounds  of  corn  silage,  I  pound  of  mangels 
or  other  roots,  and  about  1^2  pounds  of  mixed 
grains,  for  each  100  pounds  of  live  weight.  This 
mixed  grain  should  consist  of  100  pounds  of  wheat 
bran,  25  pounds  of  oats,  25  pounds  of  cracked  oil 
cake,  and  a  little  corn.  In  addition  to  this  they 
should  have  all  the  clover  hay  they  will  eat,  and  if 
they  have  access  to  bright,  clean  straw,  so  much 
the  better. 

SUMMER  PASTURE  AND   MANAGEMENT 

As  early  as  possible  in  the  spring  the  sheep 
should  be  placed  upon  pasture.  It  is  essentially  a 
grazing  animal,  and  the  best  and  cheapest  gains 
are  made  from  pasture.  The  change  from  the  dry 
feed  of  winter  to  the  soft,  green  feed  of  early  spring 
should  be  made  somewhat  gradually,  especially  if 
the  supply  of  succulent  feed  has  been  low.  Fre- 
quently, a  few  hours  in  the  middle  of  the  day  is  all 


158  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

that  it  is  advisable  to  pasture  the  animals,  feeding 
them  their  regular  ration  in  the  morning  and  even- 
ing. After  the  first  few  days,  when  the  grass  be- 
comes stronger  and  contains  more  nutriment,  the 
animals  may  be  left  continuously  upon  pasture  with- 
out serious  detriment.  Ordinarily,  no  feed  is  given 
while  pasture  is  good,  although  this  is  frequently 
profitable  when  some  special  object  is  sought,  such 
as  the  fitting  of  sheep  for  fairs  or  rapid  growth  of 
the  lambs  is  desired  for  an  especially  early  market. 
Grass,  water  and  shade  are  essential  for  the  best 
growth  in  summer.  Close  account  should  be  kept 
of  the  animals,  especially  in  late  summer,  when  the 
grass  is  likely  to  become  poor  and  dry,  and  extra 
feed  should  be  given  upon  any  indication  of  re- 
tarded growth. 

When  the  spring  lambs  are  intended  to  be  fat- 
tened for  market  the  following  fall,  it  is  especially 
important  that  they  be  kept  growing  and  thriving 
from  the  very  day  of  birth.  This  continuous 
growth  has  been  well  begun  when  the  management 
of  the  ewes  has  provided  for  a  liberal  flow  of  milk 
for  the  young  lambs  during  their  early  life.  This 
gives  them  a  good  thrifty  start,  and  encourages  a 
rapid,  strong  development,  so  that  at  a  very  early 
age  they  will  begin  to  eat  a  little  of  the  feed  or 
pasture  which  supports  their  mothers.  This 
amount  of  solid  food  taken  will  rapidly  increase  as 
the  animals  are  placed  upon  tender  pasture,  and  at 
an  early  age  the  lamb  will  be  drawing  its  sus- 
tenance from  the  two  sources.  The  lambs  will 
learn  to  eat  a  little  crushed  grain  or  bran  before 
they  are  very  old,  and  if  this  be  kept  before  them 
they  will  consume  increasing  amounts  of  it  during 
the  summer,  with  marked  effect  upon  their  growth 
and  condition. 


SHEEP   UNDER   FARM    CONDITIONS  I5Q 

If  it  is  impossible  to  change  the  sheep  from  one 
pasture  to  another  as  the  grass  becomes  poor,  then 
the  feed  supply  may  be  increased  with  some  of  the 
first  cutting  of  clover  or  alfalfa,  and  later  in  the 
summer  the  green  corn  may  be  cut  and  fed  in  the 
open  pasture  with  good  results.  It  is  easy  to  pro- 
vide plenty  of  good  green  feed  for  autumn  by  sow- 
ing quick-growing  crops  in  the  stubble  field,  or  in 
the  growing  corn,  and  pasturing  this  in  September 
and  October.  By  this  means  the  lamb  will  receive 
no  setback  in  its  growth  from  the  time  of  its  birth 
to  its  arrival  in  the  fattening  pen.  This  change 
from  pasture  conditions  to  the  feed  lot  is  a  critical 
period,  and  should  be  made  gradually.  The  lamb 
should  be  weaned  some  time  previous  to  its  removal 
from  the  pasture  to  the  feed  lot,  so  that  its  milk 
ration  and  the  green  feed  of  the  pasture  shall  not 
be  taken  away  at  the  same  time.  If  good,  green 
grazing  has  been  provided  for  the  period  just  fol- 
lowing weaning  there  need  be  no  bad  effects  notice- 
able when  this  change  is  made. 

DOCKING 

Docking  young  lambs  is  an  almost  universal  cus- 
tom. The  only  section  of  the  country  where  this 
is  not  commonly  practiced  is  the  territory  of  New 
Mexico,  where  the  wether  lambs  are  often  left  un- 
docked.  A  flock  of  long-tailed  sheep  in  the  stock 
yards  is  put  down  at  once  as  New  Mexico  stock, 
so  prevalent  is  the  docking  custom  in  all  other 
sections  of  the  country.  The  tail  is  a  useless  ap- 
pendage, hard  to  shear  and  of  more  nuisance  than 
benefit  to  the  animal,  and  this  is  the  reason  for 
docking.  The  lambs  are  usually  docked  at  from 
ten  days  to  three  weeks  old,  because  at  that  age  the 


I6O  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

wounds  will  heal  quickly  and  little  pain  or  discom- 
fort is  experienced.  Some  growers  use  a  sharp 
knife,  cutting  off  the  tail  at  a  single  blow,  while 
others  prefer  to  use  a  chisel.  When  the  chisel  is 
used,  the  lamb  is  drawn  against  a  block,  and  the 
tail  severed  by  a  single  blow,  leaving  a  stub  about 
2  inches  in  length.  Under  farm  conditions,  brand- 
ing or  ear  marking  is  usually  unnecessary,  while 
under  range  conditions  it  is  absolutely  essential. 
If  the  ears  are  to  be  marked,  this  may  well  be  done 
at  the  same  time  that  the  lambs  are  docked. 

SHEARING 

Shearing  should  be  done  as  early  in  the  season 
as  weather  conditions  will  permit.  The  old  cus- 
tom of  waiting  until  June  or  even  midsummer  be- 
fore removing  the  wool  was  an  unbusinesslike  one, 
reducing  the  amount  and  value  of  the  wool  re- 
ceived by  the  owner  and  undoubtedly  causing  great 
discomfort  to  the  animal  which  had  to  wear  this 
heavy  coat  during  the  extremely  warm  weather. 
The  old  custom  of  washing  the  sheep  before  shear- 
ing has  also  passed  away,  and  is  probably  no  longer 
practiced  anywhere  in  the  United  States.  Shear- 
ing is  done  either  by  hand  or  by  means  of  machin- 
ery. It  is  very  doubtful  if  shearing  machines  are 
profitable  under  farm  conditions  where  the  flocks 
handled  are  comparatively  small.  It  requires  two 
men  to  operate  a  small  hand-driven  machine,  and  it 
is  doubtful  if  results  justify  the  double  expenditure 
of  labor  thus  necessitated  as  compared  with  hand 
shearing,  while  the  installation  of  a  power  plant 
calls  for  a  number  of  machines,  which  would  not 
be  justified  by  the  small  number  of  sheep  handled. 
It  is  unquestionably  true  that  a  small  additional 


SHEEP   UNDER   FARM    CONDITIONS  l6l 

amount  of  wool  can  be  obtained  by  the  use  of 
shearing  machines,  since  they  clip  much  closer  to 
the  skin  than  it  is  possible  to  do  by  hand.  This 
is  not  a  distinct  advantage,  however,  under  all  cir- 
cumstances, since  sheep  which  have  been  thus 
closely  shorn,  if  exposed  continuously  to  the  sun 
and  wind  immediately  afterward  are  likely  to  suf- 
fer from  a  blistered  skin. 

MACHINE   SHEARING 

Machine  shearing  is  practiced  quite  extensively  in 
the  range  country,  where  the  large  number  of 
animals  justify  the  outlay  necessary  for  a  large 
plant.  It  is  customary  to  install  the  plant  at  some 
convenient  point  on  the  railroad  where  the  sheep 
owners  may  drive  their  flocks  for  shearing,  and  thus 
save  the  expense  of  hauling  the  wool  a  long  dis- 
tance by  wagon.  These  plants  are  operated  by 
steam  or  gasoline  engines,  and  may  have  from  ten 
to  30  machines  in  operation.  They  are  placed 
where  the  number  of  sheep  handled  may  amount 
to  several  hundred  thousand  in  the  course  of  a  year. 
Even  in  the  range  country,  opinion  is  considerably 
divided  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  hand  or  ma- 
chine shearing.  An  objection  frequently  given  by 
western  sheep  men  is  that  the  vibration  of  the 
machines  in  shearing  pregnant  ewes  has  frequently 
resulted  in  abortion  and  other  severe  injuries,  which 
have  offset  any  possible  gain  from  the  use  of  the 
machines.  The  experience  of  others  does  not  seem 
to  bear  this  out.  The  probabilities  are  that  the 
injuries  come  fully  as  much  from  rough  handling 
on  the  part  of  the  machine  operators  as  from  the 
motion  of  the  machine  itself. 


l62  PROFITABLE    STOCK    RAISING 

CARE    OF    WOOL 

The  handling  and  packing  of  the  wool  is  a  matter 
of  considerable  importance.  Eastern  wool  growers 
who  have  to  handle  comparatively  few  sheep  take 
great  pains  in  folding  and  tying  each  fleece,  and 
in  the  packing  of  the  wool,  with  the  result  that 
their  product  commands  a  higher  price  than  the 
average  western  wool.  The  fleece  is  spread  upon 
the  floor,  the  edge  turned  in  and  the  entire  fleece 
folded  into  a  neat  compact  bundle.  Often  a  fold- 
ing box  is  used  to  compress  the  wool  and  make 
each  fleece  into  a  bundle  of  the  same  size  and  gen- 
eral outline.  It  is  then  carefully  tied  with  wool 
twine  and  packed  into  a  regular  wool  sack.  Where 
the  fleece  is  of  an  unusually  fine  quality,  free  from 
dirt  and  bits  of  brush,  as  is  usually  the  case  under 
farm  conditions,  this  extra  care  in  handling  and 
packing  the  wool  will  pay  good  profits  for  the  time 
and  labor  expended. 

TREATMENT  FOR  PARASITES 

Hundreds  of  years  of  domestication  have  made 
sheep  in  some  respects  a  delicate  animal,  and 
singularly  susceptible  to  disease  and  to  the  attacks 
of  parasites,  both  internal  and  external,  when  con- 
ditions are  at  all  favorable  to  the  development  of 
either.  The  heavy  coat  of  wool  also  furnishes 
favorable  environment  for  the  protection  and 
growth  of  insect  parasites.  For  this  reason,  the 
methods  of  combating  these  enemies  of  the  sheep 
are  of  great  importance  to  the  grower.  Of  all  the 
external  parasites,  scabies  has  probably  caused  the 
most  serious  damage  to  the  sheep  industry,  with 
ticks  a  close  second.  Until  comparatively  recent 


SHEEP    UNDER   FARM    CONDITIONS  163 

years,  scabies  was  considered  an  eruption  upon  the 
skin  from  some  unknown  affection  of  the  blood, 
and  there  was  little  or  nothing  to  be  done  in  the 
way  of  combating  it.  Modern  investigation  and 
the  microscope,  however,  revealed  the  multitudes 
of  mites  working  upon  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and 
when  the  true  cause  was  known  it  was  only  a  ques- 
tion of  time  and  experimentation  when  definite 
remedies  were  produced.  At  present,  this  disease 
has  largely  disappeared  from  the  range,  due  to  per- 
sistent dipping  and  disinfecting,  and  there  is  abso- 
lutely no  excuse  for  its  continuation  under  farm 
conditions.  A  few  dollars  invested  in  a  dipping 
plant  and  a  few  hours'  work  once  or  twice  a  year 
will  serve  to  keep  the  sheep  free  from  not  only  this 
disease,  but  from  ticks,  lice  and  other  parasitic 
pests  which  may  infest  the  herd.  The  type  of 
dipping  plant  desirable  will  depend  entirely  upon 
the  number  of  sheep  to  be  handled.  If  several 
hundred  head  are  supported  upon  the  farm, 
it  will  pay  to  install  a  plank  or  cement-lined  vat. 
This  should  be  made  about  5  feet  deep,  30  inches 
wide  at  the  top  and  tapering  to  about  8  inches  wide 
at  the  bottom.  It  may  vary  from  28  to  30  feet  in 
length,  if  only  a  few  hundred  are  handled,  to  100 
feet  long,  as  is  the  case  when  several  thousand  are 
to  be  handled.  When  only  a  small  number  of 
animals  are  kept,  a  galvanized  iron  dipping  tank 
may  be  purchased  at  small  cost,  which  will  serve 
very  well.  There  are  many  different  dipping  prep- 
arations upon  the  market  which  are  guaranteed 
to  destroy  any  of  the  ordinary  parasites.  Any  of 
these  preparations  bearing  the  indorsement  of  the 
federal  bureau  of  animal  industry  may  be  consid- 
ered reliable,  and  should  be  used  at  exactly  the 
Strength  indicated  by  the  directions. 


164  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

Internal  parasites,  such  as  stomach  worms,  may 
be  easily  controlled.  There  are  a  number  of  medi- 
cated stock  powders  which  can  be  fed  to  the  sheep, 
and  which  will  destroy  these  parasites,  but  prob- 
ably the  most  common  and  effectual  remedy  is  the 
feeding  of  ordinary  tobacco  stems.  Powdered  to- 
bacco may  be  mixed  with  grain  or  bran,  and  fed 
to  the  sheep  if  desired,  but  the  refuse  stems  should 
be  placed  in  the  feeding  stalls  where  the  sheep  have 
easy  access  to  them.  They  will  usually  soon  learn 
to  nibble  at  them,  and  eat  small  portions,  which 
will  be  sufficient  to  keep  them  free  from  the  or- 
dinary internal  parasites. 

FEEDING  LAMBS  FOR  MARKET 

There  is  no  branch  of  animal  husbandry  which 
has  attracted  more  attention,  in  recent  years,  nor 
from  which  greater  profits  have  been  realized  than 
from  the  fattening  of  lambs  for  market  upon  the 
farms  of  the  middle  and  far  West.  There  have  been 
some  years  when  heavy  losses  have  been  incurred, 
due  to  extravagant  prices  exacted  by  the  sheep 
raisers,  by  the  high  price  for  feed,  or  low  condition 
of  the  market  at  a  time  when  it  was  necessary  to 
sell  these  lambs.  But  taking  any  considerable 
term  of  years  together,  lamb  fattening  has  proved 
a  profitable  industry  in  every  community  where  it 
has  been  undertaken  within  the  past  20  years,  and 
it  is  becoming  increasingly  so  at  present  because  of 
the  continuously  increasing  demand  for  mutton  in 
the  face  of  a  practically  stationary  supply.  If  large 
profits  have  been  realized  by  feeders  who  have  paid 
from  3  to  5^2  cents  per  pound  for  the  original  stock, 
and  paid  high  prices  for  all  the  feed  consumed  by 
it,  it  can  be  readily  seen  that  the  farmer  who  has 


I 


SHEEP   UNDER   FARM    CONDITIONS  165 

kept  a  few  score  or  a  few  hundred  sheep  upon  his 
pasture  and  waste  land,  and  has  received,  as  prac- 
tically clear  profit,  the  market  returns  from  all  the 
lambs  he  raised,  has  a  source  of  revenue  from  his 
small  flock  of  sheep  which  is  equaled  from  no  live 
stock  investment  which  it  is  possible  for  him  to 
make. 

For  most  markets,  the  feeding  process  is  begun 
late  in  October  or  in  November.  In  addition  to  late 
fall  pasture,  such  as  rye  or  rape,  the  lamb  will  have 
been  eating  a  good  deal  of  straw,  corn  fodder  and 
other  dry  forage,  so  that  by  the  time  he  is  actually 
confined  in  close  feeding  pens  and  placed  upon  a 
fattening  ration,  his  digestive  system  has  become 
accustomed  to  the  dry  feed,  and  he  will  be  in  con- 
dition to  handle  in  an  economical  manner  large 
amounts  of  forage  and  grain,  and  should  gain  al- 
most from  the  first  day.  Roots  and  succulent 
feeds  are  not  essential  in  successful  lamb  feeding. 
Exhaustive  experiments  conducted  at  the  Iowa  sta- 
tion indicate  that,  under  some  conditions,  these 
feeds  may  be  detrimental  to  the  most  economical 
gains.  A  well-balanced  ration  of  hay  and  grain, 
plenty  of  water,  a  favorable  climate  and  regular 
feeding  are  the  factors  which  produce  nearly  all  of 
the  fat  lambs  which  are  marketed  in  the  great  pack- 
ing centers  of  this  country.  Alfalfa  is  beyond 
question  the  best  forage  for  fattening  lambs. 
Clover,  cowpeas  or  some  other  leguminous  forage 
crop  is  almost  indispensable.  Where  it  is  impos- 
sible to  secure  forage  of  this  character,  sugar  cane, 
kafir  corn  or  millet  which  have  been  cut  at  the 
proper  period  and  carefully  cured,  will  produce  good 
gains  when  used  in  connection  with  a  liberal  grain 
ration.  Nearly  all  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  lambs  fattened  in  the  far  West  receive  only  al- 


1 66  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

falfa  or  cowpeas,  with  a  small  ration  of  corn, 
throughout  the  feeding  period.  In  the  middle 
states,  clover  usually  takes  the  place  of  alfalfa,  and 
a  little  more  liberal  corn  ration  is  probably  the  rule. 

The  grain  ration  will  usually  consist  of  corn,  and 
it  is  generally  conceded  that  better  results  are  ob- 
tained from  cracked  corn  than  by  feeding  it  whole. 
The  amount  given  will  be  very  small  to  begin  with, 
and  will  be  gradually  increased  throughout  the 
feeding  period.  The  best  practice,  especially  where 
large  numbers  of  lambs  are  handled,  is  to  have  one 
pen  containing  troughs  for  the  grain  apart  from 
the  pens  in  which  the  roughage  is  fed.  The  grain 
is  placed  in  these  troughs,  the  gate  opened,  and  the 
sheep  from  one  pen  allowed  to  enter  and  eat  their 
grain.  While  they  are  doing  this,  the  hay  or  forage 
is  placed  in  the  racks  and  when  the  grain  is  con- 
sumed these  lambs  are  driven  back  into  their  pen  and 
another  lot  given  grain.  Small  amounts  of  oil  meal 
or  crushed  oats,  or  both,  may  be  introduced  into  the 
ration  with  good  effect,  but  these  are  not  usually 
essential,  and  some  of  the  most  economical  gains 
which  have  been  produced  have  resulted  from 
cracked  corn  as  the  sole  grain  ration.  Lambs 
should  average,  perhaps,  60  pounds  when  they  are 
placed  in  the  feed  lot,  and  after  a  feeding  period  of 
from  60  to  90  days,  should  weigh  from  90  to  95 
pounds.  Frequently,  heavier  weights  than  this  are 
obtained,  but  when  a  lamb  weighs  more  than  100 
pounds,  he  is  likely  to  be  discriminated  against  by 
the  buyers,  and  may  possibly  have  to  be  sold  for  a 
sheep  instead  of  a  lamb,  with  the  resulting  lower 
price. 

Whether  or  not  to  clip  before  shipping,  depends 
entirely  upon  local  conditions.  In  the  far  West 
lambs  which  have  been  brought  from  the  range  in 


SHEEP   UNDER   FARM    CONDITIONS  167 

December  are  frequently  fed  until  April,  then  shorn 
before  shipping.  There  is  no  definite  rule  by  which 
it  can  be  determined  whether  this  early  spring 
shearing  pays  or  not,  since  ordinarily  the  approx- 
imate value  of  the  wool  will  be  deducted  from  the 
market  price  of  the  shorn  lamb.  There  is  always  to 
be  considered  the  possibility  of  a  sudden  change  in 
the  weather,  which  may  result  in  severe  loss  in 
case  the  shearing  is  done  in  extreme  early  spring. 

FATTENING   GROWN    SHEEP 

The  feeding  of  wethers  or  grown  ewes  for  mar- 
ket is  not  greatly  different  from  the  method  out- 
lined in  fattening  lambs.  Where  pasture  is  plenti- 
ful, lambs  intended  for  market  may  be  profitably 
kept  until  they  are  yearlings  or  older  in  order  to 
secure  one  or  two  wool  clips,  as  well  as  the  in- 
creased weight  at  marketing  time.  However,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  market  price  per 
pound  of  matured  sheep  is  always  less  than  that  of 
fat  lambs.  This  class  of  sheep,  kept  upon  good  pas- 
ture throughout  the  summer  and  placed  in  the  feed 
lot  in  the  autumn,  will  usually  make  excellent  use 
of  grain  and  hay  given,  and  may  be  marketed  dur- 
ing the  winter.  The  only  type  of  sheep  which  re- 
quires special  feeding  is  the  old  "  broken  mouthed  " 
ewe.  When  ewes  become  old,  especially  range 
ewes,  which  have  often  been  obliged  to  subsist  on 
hard,  dry  feed,  such  as  sage  brush,  their  teeth  break, 
and  they  become  unable  to  consume  dry  forage  or 
hard  grain  in  any  considerable  quantities.  It  is 
frequently  profitable  to  purchase  these  animals  from 
the  ranges  where  they  can  usually  be  secured  very 
cheaply,  and  fatten  them  for  market,  in  case  a 
farmer  is  so  situated  as  to  have  available  soft  feeds 


l68  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

which  they  can  make  use  of  freely.  They  are  pur- 
chased in  the  spring  or  early  summer  and  shipped 
to  the  farms  while  the  grass  in  the  pastures  is  plen- 
tiful and  tender,  and  then  later  in  the  summer 
special  pasture  crops,  principally  rape,  are  made 
use  of.  By  keeping  them  constantly  on  soft  suc- 
culent food  of  this  character,  it  is  often  possible  to 
market  them  direct  from  pasture  in  the  fall,  and  in 
excellent  condition  for  slaughter.  Feeders  living 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  sugar  factories  fre- 
quently make  use  of  the  wet  beet  pulp,  which  can 
be  secured  cheaply  and  in  large  quantities  for  feed- 
ing animals  of  this  class.  Various  concentrated 
feeds,  such  as  cracked  or  ground  grain,  alfalfa  meal 
or  molasses  from  the  factories,  can  be  mixed  with 
it  and  a  well-balanced  ration  secured,  all  from  feeds 
in  a  condition  to  be  used  by  these  animals  to  good 
advantage.  If  they  are  fed  throughout  the  winter 
in  this  way,  a  heavy  wool  clip  may  be  secured  the 
following  spring  before  the  animals  are  marketed, 
and  in  this  way  very  satisfactory  profits  are 
secured. 

ECONOMIC    UTILITY    OF    SHEEP 

Not  the  least  marked  of  the  valuable  qualities  of 
sheep  under  farm  conditions  is  their  capacity  for 
utilizing  materials  which  would  otherwise  be 
wasted.  As  removers  of  weeds  in  the  fields  and 
meadows  sheep  have  no  equal,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  goats.  They  will  graze  in  out-of-the- 
way  places  along  the  roadside  and  along  the  fences 
where  large  quantities  of  vegetation  grow,  but 
which  it  is  impossible  to  utilize  in  any  other  way. 
Stubble  fields  always  contain  a  lot  of  secondary 
growth  of  grain  and  weeds,  as  well  as  large  amounts 


SHEEP  UNDER  FARM   CONDITIONS  169 

of  headed  grain  which  fell  down  or  lodged  before 
harvest  and  was  not  gathered  by  the  reaper.  All 
of  this  the  sheep  will  pick  up  and  transform  into 
mutton  and  wool,  and  several  weeks'  good  feed 
which  would  otherwise  be  lost  may  be  obtained 
every  year  from  the  cut-over  grain  fields.  Fre- 
quently the  corn  fields  can  be  pastured  in  the  early 
autumn,  and  enormous  quantities  of  the  lower 
leaves  will  be  eaten  by  the  sheep  without  any  in- 
jury to  the  ears  of  the  corn.  Not  only  will  large 
quantities  of  other  waste  feed  be  utilized  in  this 
manner,  but  a  constant  improvement  of  the  land 
will  result.  The  old  saying  that  "  the  sheep  has  a 
golden  hoof  "  is  well  borne  out  by  the  experience  of 
men  who  keep  large  numbers  of  sheep,  in  the  con- 
stant building  up  of  the  fertility  of  their  soils. 

SHEEP  ON  VALUABLE  LAND 

While  it  is  true  that  sheep  are  well  adapted  to 
grazing  on  semi-arid  land  and  to  utilizing  waste 
feed  and  the  vegetation  on  land  which  cannot 
be  profitably  managed  in  any  other  way,  it  should 
not  be  inferred  that  they  have  no  place  on  the 
rich,  high-priced  farming  land.  An  erroneous  idea 
has  often  prevailed  that  sheep  are  profitable  only 
on  inferior  land  which  is  suited  to  nothing  else. 
This  could  hardly  be  farther  from  the  truth.  The 
rich  agricultural  lands  of  England  sustain  an  aver- 
age of  680  sheep  to  every  1,000  acres,  while  some 
of  the  best  land  in  Scotland  has  supported  at  times 
as  high  as  1,380  sheep  per  1,000  acres.  The  best 
agricultural  states  of  America  do  not  support  an 
average  of  more  than  25  sheep  to  every  1,000  acres. 
Careful  breeding  and  intelligent  management  of 
sheep  will  return  greater  profits  to  the  owner  of 


170  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

the  valuable  land  of  the  middle  states  than  he  can 
realize  from  any  other  live  stock  source,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  hogs. 

FUTURE  OF  THE   INDUSTRY 

It  is  from  the  farm  districts  that  any  marked 
future  increase  in  the  total  number  of  sheep  in  the 
United  States  will  probably  come.  The  past  40 
years  have  witnessed  enormous  decreases  in  the 
number  of  sheep  owned  in  this  section,  and  the 
phenomenal  increase  in  the  great  flocks  held  upon 
the  western  ranges.  While  this  industry  in  the 
West  has  probably  not  reached  its  greatest  point 
of  development,  we  can  hardly  expect  such  con- 
tinued increase  in  the  future  in  this  section  as  there 
has  been  in  the  past.  Yet  there  is  an  imperative 
demand  for  more  sheep  and  for  more  wool  in  this 
country.  During  the  year  1909,  in  spite  of  an  ex- 
tremely high  tariff  on  wool,  we  imported  not  less 
than  $40,000,000 .  worth  of  raw  wool  from  foreign 
countries,  while  lambs  selling  for  10  cents  per 
pound  upon  the  Chicago  market  demonstrated  an 
undeniable  shortage  in  the  supply  of  mutton 
animals  for  the  block.  Meat  production  of  all 
kinds  in  the  United  States  is  decreasing  at  an 
alarming  rate,  and  this  decrease  is  rendered  more 
significant  when  the  rapid  increase  in  population 
and  meat-consuming  capacity  of  the  country  is 
considered.  It  has  been  pretty  thoroughly  demon- 
strated that  beef  cattle  cannot  be  profitably  raised 
on  land  which  commands  a  market  price  of  $200 
to  $250  per  acre,  as  is  the  case  in  many  sections 
of  the  middle  West,  yet  live  stock  of  some  sort 
must  be  produced  in  order  to  consume  the  surplus 
of  grain  and  hay  and  in  order  to  maintain  a  con- 


SHEEP   UNDER   FARM    CONDITIONS  17! 

necting  link  between  soil  fertility  and  crop  pro- 
duction. Hogs  have  always  been  largely  depended 
upon  by  the  farmers  of  this  region,  and  will  con- 
tinue to  be,  but  it  seems  clear  that  there  is  room 
for  many  millions  of  sheep  at  present  on  these 
high-priced  farms.  The  maintenance  of  sheep  on 
the  farm  is  a  profitable  business,  and  the  man  who 
likes  this  particular  line  of  stock  raising  and  is 
willing  to  give  close  study  to  details  of  management 
will  be  able  to  realize  larger  profits  from  this  source 
than  from  probably  any  other  one  branch  of  agri- 
cultural activity.  A  start  in  the  business  does  not 
require  a  very  large  outlay  of  capital,  and  the  in- 
dustry is  comparatively  easy  to  enter.  The  most 
prudent  and  advisable  way  to  start  in  the  sheep 
business  is  to  purchase  a  few  good  ewes  of  approved 
type,  and  then  expand  as  the  knowledge  of  the  busi- 
ness grows  and  as  circumstances  seem  to  justify. 
By  this  means,  the  farm  will  not  be  overstocked  by 
placing  upon  it  more  than  it  will  support,  and  the 
number  can  be  gradually  increased  up  to  the  total 
carrying  capacity  of  the  land. 

ROOM    FOR    EXPANSION 

There  are  thousands  of  farms  throughout  New 
England  and  the  eastern  and  southern  states,  as 
well  as  the  middle  and  northwestern  states,  which 
have  considerable  areas  of  land  absolutely  unfit  for 
anything  but  pasture.  Much  of  this  is  over- 
grown with  brush  and  weeds  unfit  for  cattle 
pasture,  and  giving  absolutely  no  return  upon 
its  value.  Such  land  as  this  is  ideal  for 
sheep  raising,  except  such  of  it  as  is  extremely  low 
and  wet,  and  may  be  made  to  produce  large  quan- 
tities of  wool  and  mutton  and  pay  handsome  divi- 


172  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

dends  to  the  owner  by  a  system  of  intelligent  sheep 
husbandry.  Large  areas  of  land  which  are  sus- 
ceptible to  cultivation  in  all  parts  of  the  country 
are  kept  in  pasture  of  a  more  or  less  permanent 
nature.  There  is  no  more  profitable  method  of 
utilizing  this  grass  than  by  raising  sheep  upon  it. 
Even  where  it  is  kept  primarily  for  the  use  of  milch 
cows  a  considerable  number  of  sheep  can  be  pas- 
tured without  any  apparent  decrease  in  the  carry- 
ing capacity  of  the  pasture.  Any  sort  of  grass 
which  is  suitable  for  permanent  pastures  will  be 
consumed  readily  by  sheep.  Clover,  blue  grass, 
vetches,  brome  grass  pastures  or  any  of  the  various 
legumes  planted  primarily  for  soil  renovation 
make  sheep  pasture  of  the  very  highest  quality.  It 
has  been  frequently  questioned  whether  it  is  ever 
safe  to  pasture  sheep  upon  alfalfa.  Severe  losses 
have  occurred  in  many  instances  through  its  use, 
but  it  is  now  well  established  that  alfalfa  may 
be  safely  pastured  if  care  is  taken  to  grad- 
ually accustom  the  sheep  to  its  use.  They  should 
never  be  turned  into  an  alfalfa  field  hungry,  and  it 
is  usually  better  to  wait  until  the  dew  is  off  in  the 
morning  during  the  first  week  or  two  of  grazing. 
Cowpeas,  rape  or  rye  sown  in  corn  stalks  furnish 
immense  amounts  of  excellent  pasture  for  sheep  in 
late  summer  and  in  autumn.  For  pasture  in  the 
very  late  fall  and  very  early  spring,  rye  probably 
has  no  equal,  although  its  value  for  this  purpose 
has  frequently  been  much  underestimated. 


CHAPTER  XII 

The  Swine  Industry 

The  factors  leading  to  success  in  swine  husbandry 
include  good  animals,  good  feed  and  good  care.  If 
we  fail  to  provide  any  one  of  these,  no  matter  in 
what  perfect  form  the  others  may  appear,  a  full 
measure  of  success  is  impossible.  In  meat  animals 
conformation,  constitution  and  type  are  the  essen- 
tials and  are  found  in  most  perfect  form  in  pure- 
bred or  high-grade  animals.  Such  have  the  power 
to  convert  a  larger  part  of  the  feed  consumed  into 
carcass  than  the  scrub,  which  allows  much  of  the 
feed  consumed  to  pass  out  of  the  system  as  waste 
matter.  As  to  breeds,  all  have  their  strong  and 
weak  points.  A  better  feeding  animal  is  frequently 
secured  by  cross-breeding.  This  is  understood  to 
mean  the  progeny  of  pure-bred  parent  stock.  The 
character  of  the  progeny  of  pure-bred  parents  can 
be  foretold  with  a  marked  degree  of  certainty,  but 
of  cross-bred  parents  not  at  all.  The  black  breeds 
usually  give  the  highest  grade  meats  with  the  least 
offal,  but  many  of  them  have  been  bred  for  heavy 
points  and  consequently  have  lost  fecundity.  Re- 
lief in  this  line  may  be  obtained  by  using  Chester 
White,  Duroc  Jersey  or  Large  Yorkshire  sows 
which  are  prolific  -breeders  and  excellent  mothers. 
These  are  bred  to  a  pure-bred  Poland  China  boar. 
A  Poland  China  boar  and  Yorkshire  sow  bring  a 
very  superior  feeder. 

BREEDS  AND  TYPES 

The  question  of  what  breed  of  hogs  is  best  for  a 
farmer  to  raise  is  one  upon  which  little  definite 

173 


174  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

information  can  be  given.  Conditions  are  often 
equally  as  favorable  for  success  with  two  or  more 
breeds  of  hogs,  and  the  breed  chosen  will  depend 
entirely  upon  the  personal  tastes  and  fancies  of  the 
farmer.  While  one  man's  fancy  may  lead  him  to 
adopt  the  Poland  China  as  his  favorite  breed,  his 
neighbor  just  across  the  road,  situated  under  similar 
conditions,  may  choose  the  Berkshire  or  Duroc  Jer- 
sey, and  the  success  of  the  two  may  be  equal.  The 
question  of  type,  however,  is  one  which  is  vitally 
influenced  by  local  conditions,  and  particularly  by 
the  classes  of  feed  which  are  best  suited  to  the 
locality.  Hogs  are  divided  into  two  general 
classes  or  types,  which  are  designated  the  lard  type 
and  the  bacon  type.  The  lard  type  includes  the 
Poland  China  and  similar  breeds,  which  are  char- 
acterized by  heavy  weight  and  excessive  production 
of  fat.  The  bacon  type  includes  the  Tamworth, 
Yorkshire  and  similar  breeds,  which  are  character- 
ized by  the  production  of  a  large  proportion  of  lean 
meat,  and  are  of  wide,  deep  conformation  suited  to 
the  production  of  bacon.  The  lard  type  is  primarily 
adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  corn  belt,  where 
the  principal  grain  produced  is  of  a  highly  carbona- 
ceous nature,  and,  therefore,  peculiarly  suited  to 
the  excessive  fat  formation  characteristic  in  this 
type  of  hogs.  The  bacon  type  is  more  especially 
adapted  to  regions  where  such  grains  as  barley  and 
field  peas  are  grown  in  profusion  and  where  corn  is 
not  the  leading  cereal  crop.  The  highest-priced 
'bacon  produced  in  the  world  is  grown  by  the 
Danish  and  Irish  farmers,  with  the  Canadian  ex- 
port bacon  in  close  competition.  The  hogs  produc- 
ing this  bacon  receive  no  corn,  but  are  fed  upon 
grains  and  grasses  in  which  protein  is  the  pre- 
dominant element.  Very  excellent  bacon  is  also 


THE   SWINE    INDUSTRY  175 

now  being  produced  in  the  high  valleys  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  states  where  alfalfa  pasture,  west- 
ern grown  barley,  peas  and  sugar  beets  constitute 
the  ration. 

In  choosing  the  type  of  hogs  to  be  bred,  the 
farmer  should  pay  particular  attention  to  the 
natural  conditions  under  which  he  is  working,  and 
should  breed  the  type  of  hogs  that  thrive  best  upon 
the  grains  and  forages  his  farm  will  produce.  The 
selection  of  the  foundation  stock  for  a  herd  of  hogs 
is  of  the  utmost  importance.  Poorly  chosen  in- 
dividuals of  indifferent  breeding  will  tend  to  trans- 
mit their  undesirable  characteristics  to  their  off- 
spring, with  the  result  that  the  quality  of  the  entire 
herd  is  likely  to  be  low.  Learn  to  appreciate  the 
strong  points  in  whatever  particular  breed  is  chosen, 
and  then  select  those  individuals  for  breeding  which 
most  nearly  conform  to  the  ideal  type.  In  select- 
ing breeding  hogs,  either  male  or  female,  the  follow- 
ing points  should  receive  consideration:  Form, 
size  for  age,  quality  and  feet  and  legs.  To  thor- 
oughly inspect  a  hog  it  is  necessary  to  view  it  from 
the  sides,  front  and  rear,  both  standing  and  in 
motion.  From  the  side,  the  hog  should  show  a 
rather  short  head,  full  jowl  and  neck,  a  strong, 
rather  arched  back  without  any  depression  back  of 
the  shoulders  or  at  the  loin,  a  deep  body  of  good 
length,  and  a  deep,  well-rounded  ham.  From  front 
and  rear  the  side  lines  of  the  body  should  be  straight 
and  parallel,  and  this  will  be  true  if  the  develop- 
ment of  shoulder,  spring  of  rib  and  ham  are  uni- 
form. Good  quality  is  indicated  by  fine  hair, 
medium  bone  and  absence  of  wrinkles  and  general 
coarseness.  Hogs  coarse  in  type  mature  slowly 
and  fatten  indifferently.  Those  possessing  harsh 
hair  and  skin  and  showing  wrinkles  will  produce 


176  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

inferior  pork.  Breeding  hogs  should  have  short, 
strong  legs  and  strong,  upright  pasterns.  Lack  of 
sufficient  bone  as  shown  by  weak,  broken-down 
pasterns,  is  a  common  defect  noticeable  in  brood 
sows,  especially  those  that  have  been  fed  largely 
on  corn.  In  fact,  feed  has  much  to  do  with  de- 
velopment and  strength  of  bone.  A  low,  weak 
back  indicates  weakness,  and  no  young  sow  show- 
ing such  a  defect  should  be  kept  for  breeding 
These  two  defects,  weak  pasterns  and  backs,  may 
be  readily  noticed  when  the  pig  is  moved  and  often 
when  standing.  Other  common  faults  are  coarse 
shoulders  open  on  top,  poorly  sprung  short  ribs 
and  narrow  loin. 

SELECTION    FOR    BREEDING 

The  fecundity  of  sows  always  appeals  to  hog- 
raisers.  The  size  of  litters  varies  with  breeds  to 
some  extent,  but  still  more  with  individuals.  Statis- 
tics compiled  by  the  Indiana  experiment  station 
show  that  the  average  size  of  several  hundred  of 
Poland  China,  Berkshire  and  Chester  White  litters 
were :  Poland  China  6.5  pigs  to  the  litter,  Berk- 
shire 7  pigs  to  the  litter,  and  Chester  White  7.5 
pigs  to  the  litter.  However,  litters  of  these  breeds 
will  vary  from  three  or  four  to  ten  or  more  pigs  to 
the  litter.  Confinement  and  overfattening  tend  to 
reduce  fecundity.  Again,  sows  that  are  sluggish  or 
over-refined  in  type  are  usually  indifferent  breeders. 
So  far  as  known,  the  sow  controls  the  size  of  lit- 
ters, and  since  fecundity  is  largely  a  family  or  in- 
dividual characteristic,  it  is  good  policy  to  select 
brood  sows  only  from  litters  of  which  at  least  seven 
pigs  have  been  successfully  raised.  Select  for  a 
sire  a  pure-bred  animal,  using  as  much  care  and 


THE   SWINE    INDUSTRY  177 

thought  as  the  successful  horseman  uses  in  select- 
ing his  breeding  stock.  Use  one  that  is  recorded 
in  the  herd  books  of  the  breed  you  select.  This 
registration  is  a  guarantee  of  his  purity  and  in- 
sures a  uniform  conformity  to  the  litters.  This  is 
an  item  of  value  when  they  are  ready  for  market, 
and  of  satisfaction  to  their  owner  all  through  the 
growth.  He  should  be  kept  in  good,  vigorous, 
thrifty  condition,  not  fat,  with  plenty  of  exercise. 
For  summer,  give  him  a  pasture  run  or  feed  green 
food  in  a  large  yard.  In  winter,  part  of  his  feed 
can  be  roots.  It  is  better  if  his  quarters  are  away 
from  the  other  hogs.  Handle  him  kindly,  but  with 
an  understanding  that  he  must  obey,  and  he  will 
be  quiet  and  kind. 

In  the  care  of  sows  during  pregnancy,  remember 
that  the  sow  has  two  duties  to  perform,  namely, 
keeping  up  the  functions  of  her  own  body  and  sup- 
plying the  unborn  litter  with  the  elements  neces- 
sary for  its  development.  In  order  to  properly 
perform  these  duties,  the  sow's  feed  must  be  rich 
in  protein.  The  ration  should  never  be  allowed 
to  become  excessive  in  carbohydrates.  One  of  the 
greatest  dangers  to  avoid  is  constipation.  Al- 
though feeding  at  this  time  will  not  need  to  be  so 
heavy  as  after  the  pigs  are  farrowed,  it  should  be 
liberal  Aim  to  keep  sows  in  good  condition, 
neither  too  fat  nor  too  lean.  The  error  of  allow- 
ing the  sow  to  become  fat  would  perhaps  be  least 
productive  of  serious  consequences.  The  mistake 
in  feeding  breeding  animals  is  most  frequently  that 
of  keeping  such  stock  in  a  thin,  half-starved  con- 
dition under  the  idea  that  the  reproductive  organs 
are  peculiarly  liable  to  become  transformed  into 
masses  of  fat.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
main  demands  upon  the  sow  are  those  for  the  build- 


1/8  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

ing  of  new  tissue;  hence,  the  kind  of  feed  is  im- 
portant. The  nitrogenous  or  protein-bearing  feeds 
are  needed  at  this  time.  These  are  oil  meal,  bran, 
beans,  peas,  oats  and  barley,  and  to  a  moderate  ex- 
tent wheat.  The  forage  plants  that  are  especially 
suitable  for  pregnant  brood  sows  are  the  clovers  and 
their  relatives,  alfalfa,  peas  and  beans.  The  or- 
dinary pasture  grasses  are  also  of  much  value.  In 
feeding  sows,  always  give  the  ration  in  such  form 
that  the  system  of  the  sow  will  be  at  its  best. 
Never  feed  corn  in  large  amounts  to  breeding  stock. 
It  is  too  heating,  and  contains  too  much  of  the  fat- 
forming  elements.  During  the  winter  season,  the 
hog's  system  not  only  craves  green  feed,  but  bulk 
is  demanded.  This  is  especially  needed  when  con- 
siderable confinement  is  necessary.  To  offset  the 
lack  of  green  feed,  there  is  nothing  that  surpasses 
roots.  These  may  be  sliced  or  pulped  and  mixed 
with  the  grain,  or  may  be  given  whole,  as  a  noon 
feed.  Some  care  must  be  exercised  in  feeding 
roots,  as  they  are  laxative  in  effect,  and  if  fed  in 
excessive  amounts  may  bring  about  profuse  action 
of  the  bowels.  Keep  charcoal,  ashes  and  chalk  in 
reach  of  the  sows  at  all  times.  These  act  as  a  ver- 
mifuge and  preventive  of  disease  and  meet  the  hog's 
craving  for  mineral  matter.  The  constant  use  of 
such  a  preparation  with  a  varied  ration  will,  in  a 
large  measure,  prevent  sows  from  eating  their  pigs 
at  farrowing  time. 

HOW  MANY  LITTERS? 

One  of  the  mooted  questions  of  hog  raising  is 
whether  it  is  profitable  to  try  to  raise  more  than, 
one  litter  per  year  from  the  same  breeding  stock. 
This  problem  is  one  which  must  be  decided  by  each 


THE   SWINE    INDUSTRY  179 

farmer  for  himself  and  it  depends  entirely  upon 
the  conditions  under  which  he  is  working  and  the 
equipment  he  has  for  caring  for  hogs.  Pigs  born 
in  the  fall  are  never  profitable  unless  the  farmer  is 
prepared  to  take  the  very  best  care  of  them  during 
the  winter.  If  he  has  warm  shelter  for  them  and 
has  an  abundance  of  milk  or  ground  feed  and  roots 
with  which  to  keep  them  growing,  and  has  equip- 
ment for  heating  or  cooking  this  feed  during  the 
cold  months,  fall  pigs  may  be  made  to  pay  fair 
profits.  Unless  they  can  be  very  carefully  taken 
care  of,  they  will  not  thrive  during  the  cold  weather, 
will  become  stunted,  and  it  will  be  impossible  to  get 
the  growth  out  of  them  that  is  necessary  for  profit- 
able stock  production.  To  successfully  raise  two 
litters  per  year  from  one  sow,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  plan  for  the  arrival  of  a  spring  litter  early  in 
March.  This  frequently  will  be  found  a  disadvan- 
tage because  the  weather  at  this  time  is  usually 
cold  and  stormy  and  not  conducive  to  thrifty  growth 
during  the  first  month  of  the  pig's  life,  which  is  a 
vital  period.  By  planning  the  arrival  of  the  spring 
litter  at  this  time,  the  fall  litter  should  be  farrowed 
by  the  middle  of  August  or  early  September,  so 
as  to  have  the  fall  pigs  well  started  on  their  growth 
before  the  cold  weather  arrives. 

An  important  detail  in  the  management  of  grow- 
ing pigs,  especially  fall  pigs,  is  to  see  that  they  get 
plenty  of  exercise.  The  spring  pigs  will  usually 
take  plenty  of  exercise  of  their  own  accord,  es- 
pecially when  raised  on  pasture,  but  in  winter, 
when  they  are  likely  to  receive  a  large  concentrated 
grain  ration  in  the  barn,  there  is  danger  that  they 
will  become  sluggish  and  not  move  about  enough. 
Pigs  which  are  heavily  fed,  and  take  insufficient 
exercise,  will  very  probably  develop  the  disease 


i8o 


PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 


known  as  thumps,  for  which  there  is  no  remedy, 
and  which  almost  invariably  ends  fatally.  Further- 
more, in  the  lack  of  exercise,  the  pig  will  not  de- 
velop bone  and  constitution,  and  will  tend  toward 
the  small  blocky  type  of  little  constitution  and  in- 
ferior breeding  qualities. 

FEEDS   FOR   GROWING  PIGS 

There  is  no  feed  more  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
growing  pigs  than  skim  milk.  This  makes  hog 
raising  a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  dairy  industry. 


A  BRICK  FEEDING  FLOOR 

As  the  pig  grows  older,  it  can  be  fed  increasing 
amounts  of  grain  with  this  milk  by  mixing  the  two 
into  slop.  Bran,  shorts  and  other  mill  feeds, or  ground 
oats  and  barley,  with  a  little  cornmeal,  make  ex- 
cellent grains  for  use  in  connection  with  skim  milk. 
It  has  long  been  known  that  plenty  of  pasture 
during  as  much  of  the  year  as  is  possible  is  abso- 
lutely essential  to  the  most  economical  hog  grow- 
ing. Conditions  during  recent  years  have  served  to 
emphasize  this  need  The  prevailing  high  prices 
of  grain  have  had  a  tendency  to  induce  hog 


THE   SWINE    INDUSTRY  l8l 

raisers  and  breeders  to  rely  on  pasture  for  feed 
much  more  than  was  formerly  customary.  All 
pasture  grasses  are  not  of  equal  value.  The 
poorest  kinds  are  much  better  than  none,  but  the 
benefit  received  from  any  depends  largely  upon 
the  management  of  both  hogs  and  pasture.  Al- 
falfa stands  at  the  head  of  the  list,  clover  a  close 
second,  with  white  clover,  June  grass  and  timothy 
in  the  order  named. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  compel  the  hogs  to  depend  entirely 
upon  the  grass,  even  though  the  prices  of  grain  and 
mill  feeds  are  high.  The  stomach  of  the  pig  is  not 
like  that  of  the  sheep  and  cow,  and  cannot  be  used 
as  a  repository  for  a  large  amount  of  coarse  feed 
at  one  time.  It  has  been  found  by  experience  and 
experiment  that  hogs  fed  a  half  ration  of  cornmeal 
while  running  to  clover  will  make  as  rapid  gains 
as  they  will  if  confined  and  fed  a  whole  ration,  and 
that,  too,  of  a  better  quality  of  meat  than  that  made 
wholly  from  corn.  The  grass  gives  bulk  to  the 
mass  in  the  stomach,  enabling  the  gastric  juice  to 
circulate  more  freely  through  it,  and  digestion  is 
more  completely  accomplished  than  if  grain  con- 
stitutes the  entire  ration.  And,  further,  the  clover 
contains  the  elements  that  promote  the  growth  of 
bone  and  muscle  which  helps  to  make  up  a  pretty 
well-balanced  ration. 

PASTURE   AND    FORAGE 

For  late  fall  and  winter  pasture,  rape  and  rye  are 
two  of  the  most  valuable  crops  which  the  farmer  in 
the  corn  belt  can  raise.  Where  he  has  an  abundance 
of  alfalfa  or  clover  so  that  it  will  not  be  pastured 
too  closely  during  the  summer,  this  can  be  used  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  winter.  It  will  remain 
in  a  partially  green  condition  and  will  be  eaten 


1 82  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

with  relish  by  hogs  all  winter  except  when  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow.  But,  frequently, 
there  is  no  winter  supply  of  this  pasture.  In  this 
case  rape  should  be  planted  in  the  corn  field  at  the 
time  of  the  last  cultivation,  and  by  the  time  the 
corn  has  been  gathered  from  the  field  there  will  be 
a  fine  heavy  growth  of  green,  juicy,  nutritious  feed 
which  will  be  pastured  by  hogs  and  sheep  until 
well  into  December.  In  some  other  field  rye  should 
be  sown  late  in  August  or  early  in  September.  This 
will  grow  up  sufficiently  to  cover  the  ground  before 
cold  weather  stops  its  growth,  and  it  will  remain 
green  and  in  good  condition  for  pasturing  all  win- 
ter, so  that  when  the  rape  is  used  up  or  destroyed 
by  frost,  the  rye  can  be  used  until  green  feed 
makes  its  appearance  next  spring. 

In  the  absence  of  conditions  which  favor  winter 
grazing,  many  farmers  are  using  finely  chopped 
alfalfa  or  clover  hay  with  excellent  results.  Al- 
falfa meal,  which  can  be  purchased  at  almost  any 
feed  store  now,  is  particularly  adapted  to  winter 
feeding  of  hogs  and  it  can  be  readily  mixed  with 
chopped  grain,  or  other  feed.  It  furnishes  a  ration 
of  high  protein  content,  and  serves  to  add  bulk  to 
the  feed.  This  last  is  of  greater  importance  than 
many  farmers  have  thought  in  adding  to  the  health 
and  thrift  of  their  hogs.  An  excessive  concentrated 
grain  ration  has  been  found  less  efficient  than  a 
smaller  quantity  of  grain  fed  in  connection  with 
some  bulkier  feed,  such  as  chopped  hay  or  roots. 

On  farms  where  the  amount  of  land  which  can 
be  devoted  to  hog  pasture  is  not  large,  greater 
efficiency  of  the  pasture  can  be  secured  by  using 
the  lot  system  of  grazing.  This  consists  simply 
in  having  the  grazing  land  divided  into  two 
or  more  portions,  so  that  one  may  be  grazed  while 


THE  SWINE   INDUSTRY  183 

the  pasture  in  the  other  is  growing  up,  and  they 
are  used  alternately.  If  the  pasture  be  of  a  per- 
manent nature,  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa,  it  will 
generally  pay  to  go  over  each  lot  with  the  mowing 
machine  immediately  after  the  hogs  are  placed  on 
the  other  lot.  This  cuts  down  the  old  dry  stalks 
that  have  been  left  and  stimulates  a  new  rapid 
growth  of  young,  tender  shoots.  There  will  be  less 
tendency  to  waste  feed  by  this  method  than  where 
a  large  number  of  hogs  are  kept  continuously  in 
one  pasture,  and  it  is  also  undoubtedly  true  that  a 
larger  number  of  animals  can  be  maintained  on 
a  given  area  of  land. 

In  some  corn-growing  districts,  and  more  es- 
pecially in  some  of  the  pea-growing  regions  of  the 
mountain  valleys,  the  custom  of  "  hogging  off " 
a  crop  has  become  quite  common.  This  consists 
simply  of  turning  animals  into  a  corn  field  or  pea 
field  and  allowing  them  to  harvest  the  crop,  con- 
suming all  they  desire  of  the  grain  and  keeping 
them  in  the  field  until  it  is  all  cleaned  up.  Some 
hold  the  idea  that  hogging  off  a  crop  is  a  shiftless 
way  of  farming.  This  is  based  neither  on  facts  nor 
good  judgment,  according  to  the  statement  made  in 
a  bulletin  on  this  subject,  issued  by  the  Minnesota 
experiment  station.  As  a  method  of  economical 
feeding,  the  practice  of  hogging  off  corn  has  been 
growing  in  favor  during  the  past  few  years  and 
seems  to  be  a  practical  and  economical  way  of  feed- 
ing hogs  for  several  weeks  during  the  fall.  A  two- 
years'  investigation  into  this  subject  was  made  at 
the  Minnesota  station.  Comparisons  were  made 
with  other  methods  of  feeding  corn  and  letters  of 
inquiry  were  sent  to  many  farmers  who  had  ex- 
perimented with  this  plan.  As  a  result,  the  station 
is  strong  in  its  recommendation  of  this  plan,  viewed 


184 


PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 


from  an  economical  standpoint  brought  about  by 
the  reduced  bill  for  labor.  Pork  was  produced  with 
less  grain  by  hogging  corn  than  by  feeding 
ear  or  snapped  corn  in  yards.  Hogs  fed  in  fields 
gained  nearly  one-third  more  rapidly  than  those  fed 
in  yards.  The  cost  of  fencing  the  corn  field  may 
be  from  $i  to  $2.50  less  per  acre  than  the  cost  of 
husking  corn.  It  requires  no  more  labor  to  pre- 
pare for  subsequent 
crops  fields  that 
have  been  hogged 
off  than  those  that 
have  been  treated 
by  the  ordinary 
methods  of  harvest- 

MOVABLE  HOG  SHELTER  ing.       HogS      waste 

no    more    corn    in 

the  field  than  when  fed  in  a  yard.  They  pick  the 
corn  as  clean  as  most  men  do  in  husking.  Labor 
in  caring  for  hogs  is  not  increased  by  hogging  off 
corn,  but  may  be  decreased  if  systematic  methods 
are  employed. 

FATTENING  RATIONS 

It  is  coming  to  be  generally  recognized  that  so 
far  as  health,  thrift  and  rapidity  of  gains  are  con- 
cerned, corn  alone,  at  least  in  dry-lot  feeding,  does 
not  give  as  satisfactory  results,  especially  for  grow- 
ing pigs,  as  a  combination  of  corn  and  some  feed 
adding  protein  to  the  ration.  Wheat  shorts  is  very 
commonly  considered  the  best  feed  to  use  with 
corn  for  young  pigs,  but  other  feeds  are  on  the 
market  which  contain  still  larger  quantities  of  pro- 
tein, and  their  merits  for  pig  feeding  deserve  in- 
vestigation. With  this  object  in  view,  the  Iowa  ex- 
periment station  conducted  a  series  of  experiments. 


THE   SWINE    INDUSTRY  185 

in  swine  feeding.  In  using  meat  meal  and  tankage 
as  supplemental  feeds  the  following  conclusions 
were  reached:  that  meat  meal  and  tankage  of 
similar  chemical  composition  are  almost  equal, 
pound  for  pound,  as  a  supplement  to  a  corn  ration 
for  growing  pigs  and  fattening  hogs.  That  grow- 
ing pigs  fed  meat  meal  and  tankage  to  the  extent  of 
16%  per  cent  of  their  ration,  and  older  hogs  hav- 
ing these  feeds  to  the  extent  of  10  per  cent  of  their 
ration  with  corn,  ate  more  feed  and  made  more  rapid 
gains  than  those  fed  on  any  other  combination, 
such  as  shorts,  barley  and  corn,  or  shorts  and  corn 
tested  in  these  experiments.  In  dry  lot  feeding,  a 
ration  composed  of  corn  with  either  meat  meal  or 
tankage,  produced  from  25  to  40  per  cent  faster 
gains  on  quite  mature  hogs  and  from  50  to  60 
per  cent  faster  gains  on  younger  hogs  than  a  ration 
of  corn  alone.  In  every  instance,  the  number  of 
pounds  of  feed  required  per  hundred  pounds  gain 
was  decidedly  less  with  the  mixed  ration. 

Under  certain  special  conditions  it  is  possible  to 
raise  and  fatten  hogs  without  the  use  of  grain. 
Farmers  situated  in  immediate  proximity  to  cream- 
eries having  large  quantities  of  skim  milk  and 
buttermilk  which  can  be  purchased  cheaply,  and 
farmers  living  near  cities  where  the  refuse  from 
hotel  kitchens  can  be  obtained,  have  frequently 
secured  large  profits  from  hogs  raised  and  fattened 
on  these  materials.  It  is  also  possible  to  main- 
tain breeding  animals  in  a  medium  state  of  thrift 
on  pasture  without  the  use  of  any  grain,  but  this 
is  never  an  advisable  practice  where  even  a  small 
grain  ration  can  possibly  be  supplied.  Experi- 
ments have  shown  conclusively  that  hogs  on  even 
the  best  pasture  grow  faster  and  make  vastly  more 
economical  gains  if  a  ration  of  grain  be  furnished. 


1 86          PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

The  phenomenal  rise  in  land  values  in  recent 
years  has  resulted  in  a  depreciation  of  interest  in 
live  stock  production  throughout  the  entire  country. 
This  is  applied  with  less  force,  perhaps,  to  the  hog 
industry  than  to  cattle  and  sheep  growing,  but  its 
effect  has  been  very  noticeable  even  in  this.  In 
addition,  a  short  period  of  extremely  low  prices 
was  experienced  as  a  direct  result  of  the  financial 
flurry  of  1907,  when  the  hogs  which  had  been  raised 
and  finished  on  high-priced  grain  were  marketed 
at  so  low  a  price  as  not  to  pay  for  the  grain  they 
had  consumed.  These  two  factors  resulted  in  the 
marketing  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  breeding 
hogs  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  direct 
result  of  this  move  was  in  turn  seen  two  years  later 
when  the  markets  of  the  country  offered  the  highest 
prices  paid  for  fat  hogs  since  the  civil  war,  and  were 
even  then  unable  to  secure  a  supply  adequate  for 
the  needs  of  the  packers.  The  rapidity  with  which 
the  hog  supply  of  the  country  may  be  diminished 
or  increased  is  one  of  the  remarkable  features  of 
the  industry,  and  one  reason  why  it  is  impossible 
to  forecast  for  any  considerable  length  of  time  just 
what  the  market  supply  or  demand  will  be.  The 
supply  will  probably  continue  to  fluctuate  in  the 
future  as  it  has  in  the  past  in  sympathy  with  agri- 
cultural conditions.  This  much,  however,  is  cer- 
tain :  that  hogs  managed  and  fed  in  the  most 
economical  manner,  with  a  liberal  use  of  pasture 
and  forage,  and  the  feeding  of  minimum  amounts 
of  high-priced  grain,  will  pay  higher  interest  on 
the  high-priced  lands  of  the  Mississippi  valley  than 
will  any  other  single  class  of  live  stock.  Their 
value  as  improvers  of  the  soil  should  not  be  over- 
looked. Although  it  is  considerably  less  than  that 
of  cattle  and  sheep,  still  they  have  a  high  value  for 


THE   SWINE    INDUSTRY  187 

this    purpose,    probably    much    greater    than    has 
usually  been  accorded  them. 

MARKET    DEMANDS 

The  type  of  hog  most  favored  in  the  markets  is 
very  different  from  that  demanded  20,  30  or  40  years 
ago.  Then  the  large  hog,  with  the  broad,  fat  back 
and  sides,  was  the  type  demanded.  The  taste  of 
consumers  has  greatly  changed  since  then.  The 
popular  demand  at  the  present  time  is  for  early  ma- 
turing hogs  weighing  from  200  to  300  pounds  each. 
These  hogs  furnish  a  smaller  amount  of  lard  and  a 
relatively  greater  percentage  of  ham  and  bacon. 
The  public  demand  at  this  time  favors  light,  lean 
hams  and  thin,  rather  lean  bacon,  and  this  is  pro- 
duced only  by  the  light,  trim-built  type  of  hog. 
The  farmer  who  would  get  the  largest  per  cent  of 
profit  must  know  the  demands  of  the  market,  must 
cater  to  that  demand  and  produce  what  the  buyers 
want.  This  type  of  hogs  should  be  brought  to 
maturity  and  marketed  at  from  eight  to  ten  months 
old,  certainly  not  more  than  ten  months. 

The  unusually  high  prices  realized  for  fat  hogs 
in  the  winter  of  1909-10  will  undoubtedly  not  be 
maintained  indefinitely.  They  were  induced  in  a 
very  large  degree  by  the  definite  shortage  of  hogs 
throughout  the  country.  This  shortage  will  be 
supplied  within  a  year  or  two,  and  it  is  only 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  lower  prices  will  pre- 
vail. However,  it  is  extremely  unlikely  that 
the  prices  for  fat  hogs  will  ever  again  drop  to  the 
low  level  which  they  have  at  times  in  the  past,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  some  unforeseen  financial  emer- 
gency, such  as  occurred  in  1907.  The  demand  for 
meat  products  is  continually  increasing  in  the 


1 88  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

United  States.  The  supply  of  mutton  is  practically 
stationary,  the  supply  of  beef  is  decreasing,  and 
already  the  United  States  has  practically  given  up 
its  former  vast  export  meat  trade  because  there 
is  absolutely  not  enough  meat  produced  in  the 
United  States  to  much  more  than  supply  the  local 
demand.  The  quickest  increase  can  be  brought 
about  by  the  hog  breeder  because  of  the  large  per 
cent  of  increase  in  this  class  of  animals.  On  ac- 
count of  the  decreasing  beef  supply  and  the  con- 
tinually increasing  population,  it  seems  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  the  consumption  of  pork  in  this 
country  will  constantly  increase,  and,  therefore, 
furnish  a  continuously  expanding  market  for  all  the 
pork  products  we  are  able  to  grow  through  a  con- 
siderable term  of  years.  The  fact  to  be  empha- 
sized, however,  is  that  careless  and  wasteful 
methods  in  raising  and  fattening  hogs  must  go. 
There  is  no  longer  any  place  in  American  agricul- 
ture for  the  type  of  farmer  who  is  not  willing  to 
mix  with  his  farming  operations  the  maximum 
amount  of  brains  and  intelligence.  He  can  no 
longer  depend  upon  feeding  corn  to  his  hogs  in 
small  pens  throughout  the  whole  year  as  he  did 
years  ago,  and  expect  to  make  a  dollar  of  profit. 
Under  present  conditions,  an  ample  supply  of  pas- 
turage is  the  first  requisite  for  success  in  raising 
hogs.  A  certain  amount  of  grain  will  be  necessary 
to  profitable  production.  A  willingness  and  ability 
on  the  part  of  the  farmer  himself  to  select  and  breed 
in  the  most  intelligent  manner,  to  feed  economically 
and  efficiently,  to  know  the  markets  and  to  be  able 
to  take  advantage  of  the  conditions  offered  by  the 
market,  will  go  a  long  way  toward  insuring  per- 
manent success. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

The  American  Horse  Market 

The  total  value  of  horses  in  the  United  States 
at  present  is  stupendous.  According  to  carefully 
compiled  statistics,  under  date  of  January  i,  1910, 
the  value  of  horses  in  the  United  States  amounts 
to  the  magnificent  figure  of  $2,051,555,000.  At  that 
time  there  were  20,212,000  horses  in  the  United 
States,  giving  an  average  value  of  $101.50  per  head. 
Of  course,  this  is  considerably  higher  than  for  a 
number  of  years,  because  of  the  fact  that  values 
have  advanced  rather  than  decreased.  The  demand 
for  horses  is  on  the  up  grade  and  very  strong,  in 
spite  of  the  widespread  introduction  of  automobiles 
and  other  motor-driven  machines.  The  supply 
will  not  very  easily  overtake  the  demand.  In  fact,  if 
the  past  two  decades  are  any  indication,  the  demand 
will  increase  faster  than  the  supply.  The  population 
of  the  United  States  is  becoming  greater  and  greater 
every  year,  more  land  is  being  worked  and  the  use  of 
horses  is  naturally  becoming  wider  and  wider.  It 
takes  a  long  time  to  augment  the  horse  stock  of  any 
country,  particularly  where  a  lot  of  work  is  done  in 
the  field.  Such  a  large  proportion  of  mares  are 
unproductive  every  season  that  the  increase  is 
naturally  slow.  On  an  average,  probably  not  more 
than  1,500,000  colts  are  raised  every  year.  When 
it  is  remembered  that  a  lot  of  horses  go  out  of  com- 
mission every  season  because  of  age  and  disability, 
the  reason  for  this  slow  increase  is  readily  apparent. 

The  future  of  the  horse  in  America  is  assured. 
When  the  bicycle  became  popular  it  was  confidently 

189 


I9O  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

predicted  that  the  horse  industry  was  ruined.  For 
a  time,  indeed,  it  did  look  as  if  the  business  was 
seriously  impaired,  but  the  bicycle  had  its  day  and 
horsemen  continued  to  prosper.  With  the  advent 
of  the  automobile  in  large  numbers,  the  same  pre- 
diction was  made,  although  in  a  half-hearted  way, 
for  the  bicycle  era  was  still  in  mind.  Although 
automobiles  have  been  sold  in  large  numbers  dur- 
ing the  last  two  years,  it  has  not  affected  the  price 
of  horses  in  the  least.  In  fact,  the  advance  in  horse 
values  has  been  greater  during  that  time  than  dur- 
ing any  previous  period  for  a  great  many  sea- 
sons, so  that  the  ordinary  farmer,  the  stock  raiser, 
the  breeder  of  pure-bred  animals  apparently  has 
nothing  to  fear.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  opinion 
of  importers,  for  1909  saw  an  unusually  large  num- 
ber of  horses  brought  over  from  the  old  country. 
This  record  of  1909  was  exceeded  by  the  im- 
portations of  the  following  year.  This  shows 
that  breeders  as  well  as  importers  and  farmers  have 
implicit  faith  in  the  future  of  the  horse  industry. 
There  is  money,  and  lots  of  it,  to  be  made  in  horses 
properly  handled  and  the  reward  to  the  general 
farmer  who  keeps  all  the  way  from  three  or  four 
to  15  and  20  mares  is  positively  assured.  He  can 
raise  his  colts  at  very  small  cost,  because  his  mares 
can  be  used  for  farm  work  most  of  the  time,  and 
his  feed,  of  course,  is  cheap. 

DRAFTERS  ADAPTED  TO  FARMERS 

The  breeds  and  types  of  horses  to  be  raised  on 
the  American  farm  will  be  determined  largely  by 
the  monetary  consideration  involved.  Not  many 
horsemen  are  raising  animals  from  a  purely  senti- 
mental standpoint.  A  few  wealthy  breeders  are 


THE   AMERICAN    HORSE    MARKET  IQI 

undoubtedly  handling  horse  stock  simply  for  the 
pleasure  they  get  out  of  it,  or  with  some  scientific 
problem  in  view,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  horse 
raisers  in  America  are  raising  colts  for  profit.  This 
being  true,  the  breed  which  will  bring  in  the  most 
money,  which  is  the  most  hardy  and  prolific,  which 
can  be  handled  with  the  minimum  expense  and  the 
smallest  percentage  of  loss,  which  will  mature  mod- 
erately early  and  go  on  the  market  in  prime  condi- 
tion, is  the  one  to  choose.  With  many  farmers  it 


AN    ILLINOIS    ROUND    BARN 


is  the  Percheron,  for  undoubtedly  the  raising  of 
draft  horses  is  better  suited  to  the  farmer  of 
America  than  the  more  specialized  work  of  raising 
saddlers,  trotting  horses,  roadsters  or  even  coach 
horses.  It  requires  less  skill  to  produce  a  draft 
animal  than  the  more  delicate  type  suited  to  light 
harness  or  saddle  conditions.  Of  course,  any  horse 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

must  be  given  good  care  and  attention,  but  the  heavy 
breeds  are  more  rugged  and  able  to  withstand  un- 
favorable conditions  better  than  the  lighter  type.  As 
a  rule,  therefore,  the  draft  breed  is  the  one  for  the 
average  farmer  to  choose.  If  he  delights  in  a  horse 
of  good  action,  of  clean  limbs,  of  good  size,  of 
uniformly  good  disposition,  he  chooses  the  Per- 
cheron.  In  some  localities,  particularly  those 
where  foreigners  predominate,  the  breed  chosen  is 
apt  to  be  colored  by  what  was  raised  by  these  same 
people  in  the  old  country.  For  example,  Scotch- 
men raise  Clydesdales,  Englishmen  delight  in 
Shires.  Belgians,  of  course,  are  exceeding  popular, 
being  heavier  than  Percherons.  These  are  admi- 
rable animals  and  are  being  raised  largely  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States.  In  the  black  soil 
regions  of  the  United  States  where  mud  is  very 
abundant  at  certain  times  of  the  year,  horses  with 
legs  free  from  hair  seem  to  be  more  popular  than 
Shires  or  Clydesdales.  It  is,  however,  largely  a 
matter  of  preference  and  individual  taste. 

After  the  breed  is  decided  upon,  plan  to  stick  to 
one  line  and  not  to  constantly  change.  It  will  pay 
in  the  long  run,  in  every  respect.  Then  the  choice 
of  breeding  stock  comes  in  and  this  is  the  para- 
mount issue.  No  matter  what  reputation  a  breed 
may  have,  no  matter  how  long  and  satisfactory  the 
pedigrees  are,  profitable  horse  breeding  on  the  aver- 
age American  farm  will  be  impossible  if,  in  select- 
ing stallions  and  mares,  particular  attention  is  not 
given  to  individuality.  If  the  particular  animals 
you  choose  are  not  high  class,  are  not  prepotent, 
are  not  prolific,  you  cannot  hope  to  make  any 
money.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  get  rid  of  your 
scrub  mares.  It  doesn't  pay  to  propagate  inferiority 
in  horses.  It  is  a  more  serious  problem  than  with 


THE  AMERICAN   HORSE   MARKET  193 

most  other  forms  of  live  stock.  An  undesirable 
steer  or  hog  or  sheep  can  be  killed  for  meat  and 
something  gotten  out  of  it,  but  a  scrub  colt  is  a 
source  of  loss  and  annoyance;  consequently,  get 
rid  of  your  poor  mares;  or,  at  any  rate,  do  not 
breed  them.  Pick  out  good  individuals  which  have 
proved  good  breeders  or  give  indications  of  being 
successful  mothers.  See  that  they  have  good  bone, 
are  full  of  life  and  also  see  that  they  are  well  fed 
and  cared  for. 

In  selecting  a  brood  mare,  length  of  loin  and  a 
wide  and  deep  rib  must  be  given  the  highest  con- 
sideration. Select  those  showing  feminine  char- 
acter rather  than  masculine.  The  mare's  jaw 
should  be  lighter  than  that  of  a  stallion.  The  neck 
should  also  show  refinement.  If  mares  are  to  be 
bought,  two  rules  are  a  pretty  safe  guide.  One  is 
to  buy  the  mare  with  a  foal  at  foot.  This  gives  the 
purchaser  an  opportunity  to  see  what  kind  of  colts 
the  mare  brings.  The  other  is  to  buy  young  fillies 
of  the  man  who  bred  them.  This  gives  an  oppor- 
tunity to  see  both  sire  and  dam.  In  purchasing 
pure-bred  stock,  of  course,  the  pedigree  or  cer- 
tificate must  be  right.  See  that  the  animal  has 
good  ancestors.  In  conformation,  the  draft  mare 
should  have  the  sloping  pastern  and  shoulder,  good 
feet,  excellent  hocks,  compact  bone,  and  must  have 
a  good  disposition. 

After  the  mares  have  been  chosen,  the  selection  of 
a  stallion  requires  the  highest  skill  and  the  best 
experience.  He  should  be  a  horse  of  good  size  if 
a  drafter.  He  must  be  well  balanced,  strong  and 
virile  in  every  particular.  He  must  have  a  massive 
jaw,  a  clear,  bright  eye,  good  width  between  the 
eyes,  indicating  intelligence;  he  must  have  sound 
feet;  his  bones  must  be  clean  and  compact;  all  his 


194  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

joints  must  be  neat  and  free  from  defects;  he  must 
be  a  powerfully  built  animal,  capable  of  trans- 
mitting all  his  good  qualities  to  his  progeny. 

After  you  have  decided  what  kind  of  a  stallion 
you  want,  probably  no  place  is  as  satisfactory  for 
purchasing  as  the  home  of  some  reputable  breeder, 
where  not  only  the  sire,  but  the  dam  and  frequently 
the  second  and  third  dams,  can  be  seen.  If  his  an- 
cestors are  of  the  right  type  you  may  be  pretty 
certain  that  his  colts  will  be  satisfactory.  Decide 
fully  what  you  want  before  leaving  home,  and  do 
not  allow  a  seller  to  change  your  opinion.  See  first 
if  his  age,  color  and  marking  correspond  with  his 
certificate.  Be  very  careful  to  examine  his  eyes, 
for  defective  vision  is  transmitted  with  great  cer- 
tainty. A  good  draft  stallion  should  have  a  heavy 
jaw  and  a  clean,  neat  throat.  His  ears  should  stand 
erect ;  his  crest  should  be  well  developed  with  a 
neck  of  fairly  good  length.  Few  draft  horses  have 
ever  had  too  long  a  neck.  This  neck  should  be  set 
upon  nicely  sloping  shoulders.  Viewed  from  in 
front,  he  should  be  wide,  carrying  his  width  all  the 
way  back.  He  should  be  well  muscled  upon 
shoulder,  arm  and  forearm.  His  legs  should  be  set 
well  under  him  and  only  medium  in  length.  The 
knee  should  be  wide,  carrying  its  width  well  down. 
He  should  measure  not  less  than  10  inches  below 
the  knee,  nor  less  than  12  below  the  hock.  Viewed 
from  the  side,  all  his  legs  should  stand  perpen- 
dicular to  the  body.  The  pastern  should  stand  at 
an  angle  of  45  degrees. 

The  length  of  the  back,  from  shoulder  blade  to 
point  of  hip,  should  never  exceed  the  length  of  that 
part  of  the  quarter  measured  from  the  point  of  hip 
to  point  of  buttock.  If  depth  of  shoulder  and 
length  of  quarter  each  exceed  the  length  of 


THE  AMERICAN    HORSE   MARKET 

back,  we  have  a  near  approach  to  the  principle 
of  the  arch,  the  strongest  self-supporting  figure 
known  to  mechanics.  A  long  back  is  a  defect 
in  draft  horses.  The  body  should  be  round,  with 
ribs  well  sprung  and  extending  well  downward. 
This  gives  good  lung  capacity  and  indicates  that 
the  stallion  is  a  good  feeder.  A  horse  cut  up  in  the 
flank  is  a  poor  feeder,  and  cannot  stand  any  extra 
exertion. 

A  draft  horse  should  be  heavily  muscled  through- 
out the  hindquarters,  for  the  hindquarters  furnish 
most  of  the  power  in  drawing  heavy  loads.  The 
hock  should  be  given  more  attention  than  any  other 
part  of  the  horse,  for  draft  horses  go  wrong  because 
of  defective  hocks  more  than  from  all  other  defects 
combined.  No  hocks  can  be  too  good  or  too  strong. 
Viewed  from  both  in  front  and  at  the  side,  the 
hocks  should  appear  broad,  yet  clean  cut  and  free 
from  fullness.  In  front  of  the  hock  and  slightly  to 
the  inside,  look  closely  for  a  spavin.  Never  buy  a 
stallion  with  a  spavin,  even  though  you  pay  a  small 
sum  for  him.  The  tendency  for  the  development  of 
spavins  is  likely  to  be  transmitted.  Quality  in  the 
horse  is  indicated  by  fine,  short  hair  associated  with 
a  soft  skin,  strong,  solid  tendons  and  bone  that  is 
compact. 

After  all  these  things  have  been  looked  after,  put 
the  stallion  to  the  test  of  walking.  This  is  the  only 
gait  to  which  the  draft  horse  should  be  subjected. 
Give  strict  attention  to  every  movement.  The  feet 
should  be  lifted  clear  of  the  ground,  placed  down 
evenly  and  in  line.  From  behind  the  legs  should 
be  kept  well  under  him,  the  flexion  of  the  hock  even 
and  in  line,  the  bottom  of  the  feet  showing  at  every 
step.  From  the  side,  his  stride  should  appear  bal- 
anced, quick  and  elastic.  His  every  movement 


196          PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

should  indicate  strength  and  show  that  nerves, 
muscles  and  tendons  are  made  of  the  very  best  ma- 
terial. The  tendency  among  stallion  salesmen  is  to 
show  the  animals  at  a  trot.  The  trot  is  of  little 
value  to  a  draft  horse  and  should  be  disregarded. 

Do  not  buy  a  stallion  excessively  fat,  for  this 
extra  flesh  covers  a  multitude  of  defects.  One  in 
fair  condition  will  be  most  satisfactory. 

Be  sure  and  test  the  stallion's  wind.  Without 
good  lungs  he  is  of  no  value.  This  is  seldom  done, 
but  it  should  be  done  in  every  case.  Horsemen 
generally  recognize  that  defect  in  wind  is  trans- 
missible to  colts,  so  that  it  is  of  the  very  highest 
importance.  The  present-day  stallion  of  any  of 
the  above  draft  breeds  should  weigh  from  1,800  to 
2,000  pounds  when  in  moderate  flesh.  Two  or 
three  hundred  pounds  can  easily  be  added  by  a 
little  feeding  if  this  is  ever  found  desirable. 

Another  thing  of  utmost  importance  is  to  avoid 
buying  a  stallion  with  a  bad  disposition.  They  are 
not  only  difficult  and  dangerous  to  handle,  but  dis- 
position is  transmitted,  producing  colts  that  are  bad 
actors  and  resulting  in  loss  in  more  ways  than  one. 
Grade  stallions  should  always  be  avoided.  Occa- 
sionally a  grade  stallion  has  every  appearance  of 
being  as  good  as  a  pure  bred,  but  his  colts  will  not 
be  as  uniform,  and  a  number  of  states  are  now  pro- 
hibiting the  standing  of  grade  stallions. 

HANDLING    STALLIONS 

Upon  the  handling  of  a  stallion  will  depend  his 
usefulness  in  a  community.  This  refers  to  exer- 
cise, shelter  and  feed.  Corn  is  a  very  poor  feed 
for  a  stallion.  Grass  and  alfalfa  is  undoubtedly 
the  best.  Oats  and  bran  rank  second,  while  oats 


THE   AMERICAN    HORSE   MARKET  197 

alone  probably  rank  third.  On  western  farms 
stallions  are  kept  on  grass  and  alfalfa  without  any 
grain  at  any  season  of  the  year.  These  stallions 
are  the  best  colt  getters  in  the  world.  They  run  in 
pastures  about  four  months  of  the  year,  then  are 
taken  up  and  fed  alfalfa  the  remainder  of  the  time. 
In  the  corn  states,  where  this  coarse  grain  forms 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  ration,  the  percentage 
of  mares  in  foal  is  smaller  than  in  any  other  locality. 
For  example,  in  Colorado  and  Idaho  the  percentage 
of  mares  in  foal  is  highest,  while  in  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Iowa  and  Kansas  the  percentage  is  smallest.  In 
the  light  of  these  facts,  the  nearer  we  can  get  to  a 
grass  ration  the  larger  will  be  the  number  of  colts 
produced.  The  nearer  we  can  get  to  a  strictly  corn 
ration,  the  smaller  will  be  the  number  of  colts. 
Ordinarily,  stallions  are  fed  too  much  rather  than 
too  little.  The  feed  for  a  stallion  should  be  of  the 
very  best  quality.  Badly  cured  or  musty  hay 
should  always  be  avoided.  Clover  and  alfalfa,  if 
properly  cured,  have  no  equal.  Clover  and  timothy, 
mixed,  is  the  next  best  hay.  Good  hay  is  every- 
thing in  feeding  a  stallion.  No  one  grain  should 
ever  be  fed  alone.  If  this  must  be  done,  oats  cer- 
tainly is  the  best  grain  feed.  The  next  best  is 
barley,  but  it  should  always  be  crushed.  A  little 
bran  in  addition  to  the  grain  feed  will  help. 

Stallions  should  have  plenty  of  exercise.  They 
must  not  be  overworked,  but  if  all  stallions  were 
required  to  work  a  little  every  day  in  the  year,  the 
results  would  be  much  more  satisfactory.  The  fact 
of  the  matter  is  few  of  them  are  ever  required  to 
work  at  all.  This  is  not  only  bad  from  the  breed- 
ing point  of  view,  but  it  is  the  source  of  much 
trouble  from  sore  legs.  If  the  animal  cannot  be 


198  PROFITABLE   STOCK  RAISING 

worked  he  should,  at  any  rate,  be  given  consider- 
able exercise  in  the  way  of  walking.  He  should 
have  at  least  a  walk  of  three  to  five  miles  every  day 
and  more  if  desirable.  To  describe  a  work  rule  is, 
of  course,  no  easy  matter.  Stallions  are  different 
in  temperament.  Some  require  a  good  deal  of  ex- 
ercise, while  others  require  little.  The  exercise 
should  be  sufficient  to  expand  the  lungs,  quicken 
the  circulation,  strengthen  the  nervous  system  and 
harden  the  muscles.  Real  draft  work  in  harness 
is  the  very  best  exercise  for  a  draft  stallion.  Draw- 
ing the  plow,  harrow,  disk,  mower  or  binder  will 
not  only  furnish  exercise  for  a  draft  stallion,  but 
will  result  in  foals  of  the  highest  quality,  possess- 
ing a  vitality  that  cannot  be  produced  by  a  stallion 
which  does  not  work.  Nor  should  stallions  stop 
work  during  the  breeding  season.  A  draft  stallion 
may  work  several  hours  every  day  during  the  sum- 
mer; and  if  not  abused,  the  harder  the  work  the 
better  will  be  his  foal. 

CARE   OF  THE  COLT 

The  care  of  the  colt  from  the  beginning  is  an 
important  proposition.  It  goes  without  saying  that 
every  colt  must  be  properly  fed  from  the  start. 
Begin  by  feeding  the  mares  liberally  so  that  the 
milk  supply  will  be  abundant.  Well-cured  clover, 
hay  and  oats  is  the  best  combination  for  this  pur- 
pose that  can  ever  be  secured.  Of  course,  for  the 
first  ten  days  the  mare  must  be  fed  sparingly.  The 
digestive  organs  of  the  colt  are  delicate  at  first. 
After  this,  however,  increase  the  feed  of  the  mare 
until  she  is  getting  all  she  will  eat. 

Should  the  mare  have  no  milk,  feed  cow's  milk. 
Cow's  milk  should,  however,  be  prepared  with  great 


THE   AMERICAN    HORSE   MARKET  199 

care.  Into  a  pint  fruit  jar,  previously  sterilized, 
pour  seven  parts  of  water  and  one  part  of  new  milk. 
To  this  add  one  teaspoonful  of  granulated  sugar. 
Feed  warm.  The  pint  will  be  sufficient  for  one  feed, 
but  the  colt  should  be  fed  every  two  hours.  It  is  a 
lot  of  work  to  raise  a  colt  in  this  way,  but  it  can  be 
done  all  right.  A  nipple  over  the  spout  of  a  teapot 
is  the  best  thing  to  use  for  feeding  a  hand-raised 
colt. 

At  weaning  time  simply  let  the  colt  suck  less  fre- 
quently.    The  mare  will  gradually  dry  up.     After 


GENERAL  FARM   BARN 

the  weaning,  colts  should  never  want  for  pure 
water  or  wholesome  food.  Give  an  abundance  of 
oats,  timothy  or  prairie  hay,  add  a  little  bran  to  the 
grain  and  feed  occasionally.  If  alfalfa  and  clover 
hay  is  used,  bran  will  be  unnecessary,  although  it 
makes  a  fine  addition  to  the  colt's  ration. 

If  a  self-feeder  can  be  used  so  that  the  colt  can 
eat  whenever  it  wants  to,  the  results  will  be  better, 


2OO  PROFITABLE    STOCK    RAISING 

It  is  impossible  to  raise  heavy  horses  without  their 
getting  plenty  of  feed  during  their  growing  period. 

Colts  should  have  plenty  of  exercise.  This  de- 
velops their  muscle  and  bone,  and  vital  organs. 
Give  them  plenty  of  room  to  run  and  play.  Of 
course,  during  summer  colts  should  be  at  pasture 
all  the  time.  During  winter  they  must  be  well 
sheltered,  but  must  also  have  an  open  lot  in  which 
to  run  when  the  weather  is  not  too  severe.  A 
woods  pasture  is  ideal  for  winter. 

Another  thing  that  should  be  given  careful  at- 
tention is  the  colt's  feet.  For  the  first  year  or  two 
the  hoofs  may  require  trimming.  Some  are  in- 
clined to  turn  over  on  the  side.  This  can  easily  be 
corrected  by  carefully  trimming.  If  neglected,  a 
valuable  animal  may  be  ruined. 

FEEDING    HORSES 

In  feeding  horses  in  general  the  stuff  raised 
on  the  farm  must  necessarily  be  used,  with 
the  possible  exception  that  additional  concentrates 
are  occasionally  purchased.  This  being  true,  it  is 
highly  desirable  that  feeds  best  suited  to  horses 
be  produced.  Nobody  disputes  the  feed  value  of 
oats  for  horses.  Prof.  W.  A.  Henry  states  that 
horses  nurtured  on  oats  show  mettle  which  cannot 
be  reached  by  the  use  of  any  other  feeding  stuff. 
Then,  too,  there  is  no  grain  so  safe  for  horse  feed- 
ing, the  animal  rarely  being  seriously  injured  if  by 
accident  or  otherwise  the  groom  deals  out  an  over- 
supply.  This  safety  is  due  in  no  small  measure  to 
the  presence  of  the  oat  hull,  which  causes  a  given 
weight  of  grain  to  possess  considerable  volume, 
because  of  which  there  is  less  liability  of  mistake 
in  measuring  out  the  ration;  further,  the  digestive 


THE  AMERICAN   HORSE   MARKET  2OI 

tract  cannot  hold  a  quantity  of  oat  grains  sufficient 
to  produce  serious  disorders.  Unless  the  horse  is 
hard  pressed  for  time  or  has  poor  teeth  oats  should 
be  fed  in  the  whole  condition.  Musty  oats  should 
be  avoided.  Horsemen  generally  agree  that  new 
oats  should  not  be  used,  though  Boussingault,  con- 
ducting extensive  experiments  with  army  horses, 
arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  new  oats  do  not  pos- 
sess the  injurious  qualities  attributed  to  them. 

The  grain  most  commonly  substituted  for  oats 
is  corn.  While  corn  is  not  an  ideal  horse  feed,  it  must 
necessarily  make  up  a  part  of  the  ration  in  the 
United  States.  If  used  in  moderation,  in  connec- 
tion with  oats,  shorts  or  middlings,  the  outcome 
will  be  quite  satisfactory. 

The  best  forage,  undoubtedly,  is  alfalfa  or  or- 
dinary clover  hay.  If  alfalfa  is  used  the  supply  of 
nitrogen  in  the  food  is  increased;  consequently,  it 
is  not  so  necessary  to  buy  concentrates  like  bran, 
shorts  or  middlings.  It  goes  well  with  corn,  which 
is  a  highly  carbonaceous  feed. 

Timothy  hay,  while  considered  by  most  people 
an  ideal  horse  feed,  has  its  drawbacks.  Good 
timothy  hay,  however,  is  first  class,  and  horses  do 
well  on  it.  Well-cured  prairie  hay,  cut  at  the 
right  time,  is  usually  free  from  dust  and  is  very 
popular  as  a  horse  feed. 

During  the  fall  and  winter,  nothing  is  better  for 
young  colts  and  all  kinds  of  horse  stock  than  bright, 
well-cured  corn  stover.  This  can  be  scattered  out 
in  the  open  pasture  and  horses  pick  at  it  during 
the  day.  In  this  way  a  lot  of  valuable  feed  can  be 
utilized.  Bright  corn  stover  is  readily  eaten  by 
horses. 

In  the  Northwest  where  corn  is  not  largely  grown, 
barley  is  often  fed  to  horses  with  good  results.  It, 


202          PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

of  course,  must  be  used  in  connection  with  oats  and 
should  always  be  ground.  In  this  country,  how- 
ever, barley  is  not  widely  fed  and  may  never  be- 
come exceedingly  popular. 

The  feeding  of  small  quantities  of  oil  cake  has 
an  excellent  effect  on  the  digestive  system  of  the 
horse,  but  this  must  be  fed  carefully.  Start  with  a 
small  handful  a  day  and  increase  this  gradually. 
Oil  meal  results  in  a  very  glossy  coat,  and  ought 
to  form  a  part  of  the  ration,  especially  where  horses 
are  being  fattened  for  market. 

This  chapter  would  be  incomplete  if  horse  grow- 
ers were  not  urged  to  supply  their  animals  with  an 
abundance  of  the  best  water  obtainable.  The 
animal's  body  is  made  up  largely  by  water,  and  if 
it  is  not  supplied  regularly  and  when  needed,  growth 
will  not  be  rapid  and  the  animal  cannot  be  kept  in 
a  thrifty  condition.  Water  is  especially  important 
when  bulky,  dry  feeds  form  the  principal  part  of 
the  ration.  Where  succulent  substances  are  used, 
like  soiling  crops,  silage  or  the  like,  these 
feeds  supply  a  large  amount  of  moisture.  In 
America  the  watering  of  horses  before  feeding 
seems  best.  Some  prefer  watering  after  feeding, 
but  it  will  be  a  pretty  safe  conclusion  on  the  part 
of  the  ordinary  farmer  to  water  his  horses  before 
he  gives  them  feed.  If  heated  when  in  from 
work,  great  care  must  be  used  to  prevent  the 
drinking  of  too  much  water  at  once.  Common 
sense  will  indicate  how  to  handle  this  proposition. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

Mules  Are  Profitable 

The  production  of  mules  in  the  United  States 
has  shown  a  steady  increase  for  a  number  of  years, 
but  the  demand  is  still  much  in  excess  of  the  supply. 
Prices  are  the  highest  on  record.  In  spite  of  the 
high  prices  offered  at  all  the  leading  markets,  and 
in  spite  of  the  increase  in  the  number  of  animals 
owned  in  the  country,  the  market  offerings  grow 
smaller  yearly  instead  of  increasing.  Notwith- 
standing that  there  are  more  horses  and  mules  in 
the  United  States  today  than  at  any  previous  period 
in  our  history,  a  very  marked  scarcity  prevails  in 
all  the  leading  markets.  This  unique  condition  is 
caused  primarily  by  the  marked  prosperity  of  the 
agricultural  sections.  The  South  is  the  greatest 
mule-buying  section  of  the  country,  and  on  account 
of  the  extremely  high  prices  the  southern  farmers 
have  received  for  cotton  in  recent  years,  there  is 
more  money  in  that  section  to  be  used  for  agricul- 
tural development  than  ever  before.  A  good  deal 
of  this  ready  capital  is  being  used  in  the  better 
equipment  of  southern  farms  with  work  stock, 
which  consists  almost  entirely  of  mules.  Also, 
recent  years  have  witnessed  a  phenomenal  expan- 
sion in  the  farming  and  mining  industries  of  the 
West  and  Northwest,  which  has  called  for  enor- 
mous numbers  of  work  animals  for  use  in  farming 
operations,  in  building  irrigation  ditches  and  rail- 
roads, and  for  use  in  the  mines.  This  western  de- 
mand has  served,  not  only  to  decrease  the  exporta- 
tion of  range  horses  and  mules,  but  has  drawn,  to 

303 


204  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

a  great  extent,  upon  the  markets  of  Kansas  City, 
and  other  western  points.  In  spite  of  the  wonder- 
ful development  of  motor-driven  vehicles  in  the 
cities,  good  horses  and  mules  for  street  use  have 
never  been  so  scarce,  and  have  never  commanded 
such  prices.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  how,  for 
many  years  to  come,  this  country  can  pos- 
sibly produce  good  mules  enough  to  oversupply 
the  market.  The  opportunities  for  assured  profits 
in  this  industry  were  never  so  great,  and  the  out- 
look was  never  so  good  as  at  present. 

RANGE  OF  VALUES 

If  the  statistics  of  the  comparative  average 
values  of  horses  and  mules  for  any  period  of  years 
since  the  civil  war  be  examined,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  average  price  for  mules  has  always  been 
$5  to  $15  per  head  greater  than  that  of  horses. 
In  spite  of  the  great  advance  in  the  values  of  both 
classes  of  animals  during  more  recent  years,  the 
difference  has  gradually  increased,  and  the  average 
value  of  the  mule  has  constantly  become  greater. 

TYPES   AND   BREEDS 

The  beginning  of  mule  breeding  in  the  United  States 
dates  back  to  an  early  period  in  the  history  of  the 
country,  when  Spanish  jacks  were  sent  by  certain 
European  rulers  as  presents  to  George  Washington. 
They  were  used  by  him  on  his  farm  at  Mt.  Vernon. 
Later,  Henry  Clay  imported  several  of  the  best 
jacks  from  southern  Europe  into  Kentucky,  and 
thus  laid  the  foundation  for  the  development  of 
mule  breeding  in  this  country,  and  also  for  the 
development  of  an  American  type  of  jack.  There 
are  several  types  or  breeds  of  jacks  known  in 


MULES  ARE  PROFITABLE  2O5 

Europe,  chief  among  which  are  the  Catalonian, 
Maltese,  Andalusian,  Majorca,  Italian  and  Poitou. 
The  Andalusian  comes  from  Spain,  and  was  first 
introduced  into  this  country  as  a  gift  from  the 
King  of  Spain  to  George  Washington,  and  also  later 
was  imported  into  Kentucky.  In  color,  it  ranges 
from  gray  to  white  with  an  occasional  blue  one. 
It  stands  from  14  to  15  hands  high,  is  comparatively 
heavy  boned,  and  shows  very  good  conformation  in 
regard  to  the  head  and  ears.  It  is  not  popular  on 
account  of  its  color.  The  Maltese  is  a  small  animal 
coming  from  the  island  of  Malta.  Its  color  is 
black  or  brown.  It  has  a  well-formed  head,  but  is 
light  boned  and  for  this  reason  it  is  not  popular, 
except  for  breeding  light  mules  for  use  in  mines  or 
under  similar  conditions. 

The  Catalonian  is  another  Spanish  breed,  and 
was  the  first  introduced  into  America  by  Henry 
Clay.  These  jacks  are  of  a  good  black  color 
with  white  points,  and  possess  excellent  style 
and  action.  They  are  also  heavy  boned,  and  stand 
from  141/2  to  15  hands  high.  On  account  of  their 
desirable  color  and  excellent  quality,  they  are  very 
popular.  Most  of  the  best  characteristics  which 
have  been  bred  into  the  native  American  jack  have 
come  from  the  Catalonian  cross.  The  Majorca 
jack  comes  from  the  Island  of  Majorca.  This  is  the 
largest  of  all  the  imported  jacks,  often  standing  16 
hands  high,  and  possesses  the  greatest  weight  and 
heaviest  bone  of  all  the  jack  breeds.  The  Italian 
jack  has  been  imported  into  this  country  in  con- 
siderable numbers.  It  is  the  smallest  of  all  the 
breeds,  and  correspondingly  lower  in  price.  Al- 
though it  is  a  somewhat  blocky  and  heavy-boned 
animal,  it  is  too  small  for  use  in  producing  the  type 
of  mules  which  the  American  market  demands. 


206          PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

The  Poitou  is  a  French  breed  and  has  been  greatly 
improved  in  that  country  by  intelligent  selection 
and  breeding.  Importations  into  America  have 
been  relatively  small  on  account  of  the  large  de- 
mand for  them  in  France  and  Spain.  It  is  the 
highest  priced  of  all  the  European  breeds,  in- 
dividuals often  selling  in  France  for  $3,000. 

MAMMOTH  JACKS 

Notwithstanding  the  excellent  qualities  of  many 
of  the  imported  breeds  of  jacks,  it  is  the  opinion 
of  most  American  breeders  that  better  mules  will 
result  from  the  use  of  the  best  type  of  the  American- 
bred  jack  with  a  properly  blended  imported  an- 
cestry. The  best  strains  of  American-bred  jacks 
trace  their  ancestry  to  Mammoth,  a  jack  early  im- 
ported into  Kentucky  and  generally  conceded  to  be 
the  best  individual  ever  brought  to  America.  The 
judicious  blending  of  this  blood  with  imported 
animals  of  other  breeds  and  careful  selection 
through  a  good  many  generations  have  served  to 
fix  type  and  color  quite  definitely,  and  has  de- 
veloped the  breed  known  as  the  Mammoth  jack. 
It  is  purely  an  American  breed,  from  individuals 
of  which  most  American  mules  are  now  produced. 

The  hinny  is  the  product  of  crossing  the  stallion 
with  the  jennet.  It  resembles  the  mule  in  most 
respects  except  that  it  is  usually  smaller,  and  has 
no  particular  utility  which  is  not  possessed  in  an 
equal  degree  by  the  mule.  It  is  quite  common  in 
the  West,  and  is  used  in  mines  and  for  similar 
purposes.  Extravagant  claims  have  been  made  at 
times  concerning  the  strength  and  endurance  of 
these  animals,  but  these  qualities  are  probably  no 
more  pronounced  than  in  the  mule. 


MULES  ARE   PROFITABLE  207 

BREEDING  TYPE  OF  MARE 

The  mule  is  an  unnatural  animal,  being  a  hybrid, 
and  the  product  of  crossing  the  jack  with  the  mare. 
It  is  incapable  of  producing  young,  and  for  this  rea- 
son it  is  impossible  to  improve  the  animal  through 
the  ordinary  means  of  selection  by  which  other 
types  of  animals  are  improved.  It  has  been  pos- 
sible, as  explained  before,  to  improve  and  develop 
the  jack  by  selection  and  intelligent  crossing.  The 
method  by  which  the  production  of  good  mules  is 
made  possible  is  by  the  mating  of  the  best  type  of 
jack  with  an  approved  type  of  mare.  In  order  to 
select  this  stock  intelligently,  the  breeder  must 
have  a  knowledge,  first,  of  what  the  market  recog- 
nizes as  the  most  approved  type  of  mule,  and, 
second,  just  what  characteristics  the  mule  is  likely 
to  inherit  from  his  sire  and  what  characteristics 
from  his  dam.  Formerly,  the  requirements  of  the 
South,  which  was  the  principal  mule  market,  were 
for  rather  small  animals  of  a  good  deal  of  quality 
and  life,  and  the  lightness  of  bone  and  smallness 
of  hoof  belonging  to  this  type  of  mule  was  not  con- 
sidered a  handicap.  Breeders  used  small  or  medium- 
sized  mares,  often  with  a  large  proportion  of  coach- 
ing or  standard  blood,  possessing  plenty  of  life  and 
spirit.  The  mules  resulting  from  crosses  of  this 
kind  are  tough,  wiry,  capable  of  great  endurance 
and  altogether  a  very  serviceable  type  of  animal. 
The  market  requirements  of  the  present  day  de- 
mand a  quite  different  type  of  animal,  although  in 
the  cotton  fields  of  the  South  there  is  still  a  large 
demand  for  animals  of  the  type  just  described. 
These  are  known  in  the  markets  as  cotton  mules. 
The  draft  mule,  which  now  commands  the  highest 
price  of  any  type,  must  be  heavier,  larger  and 


2O8  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

bulkier  throughout.  He  must  stand  16  hands  high, 
weigh  from  1,200  pounds  up,  the  heavier  the  better, 
and  must  be  heavy  boned  in  proportion  to  the  in- 
creased weight.  To  produce  a  mule  of  this  type, 
heavy  draft  mares  must  be  used.  The  danger  of 
making  a  cross  of  this  kind  is  of  sacrificing  quality 
and  conformation  to  mere  size;  and  the  production 
of  one  of  these  heavy  mules  so  as  to  insure  con- 
siderable quality  and  heavy  enough  bone  to  make 
an  ideal  animal  requires  very  careful  judgment  in 
the  selection  of  the  mare.  It  is  easy  to  select  a 
mare  which  has  a  blocky  build,  large  feet  and  heavy, 
strong  legs,  but  this  type  of  mare  is  very  likely  to 
lack  quality  and  life.  Where  it  is  impossible  to 
choose  the  ideal  mare  for  this  purpose  a  lot  of  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  the  quality.  Above  all 
she  should  be  of  an  ambitious  disposition  and  have 
good  life  and  good  action.  Generally  speaking,  the 
mule  inherits  from  its  sire  the  characteristics  of  the 
neck  and  head  and  in  a  marked  degree  its  legs  and 
feet,  while  its  body  conforms  quite  strongly  to  that 
of  its  dam.  It  can  readily  be  seen  that  breeding  a 
mare  of  markedly  light  bone  and  small  feet  to  a 
jack  simply  tends  to  intensify  in  the  mule  the  light 
bone  and  small  footed  characteristics  of  the  jack. 
It  used  to  be  said  that  the  size  of  a  mule's  foot  was 
a  matter  of  little  importance,  that  his  hoof  was 
naturally  small  and  compact  and  his  legs  light  and 
slender.  But  when  a  1,200  to  l,4OO-pound  body  is 
bred  upon  feet  and  legs  intended  to  support  only 
900  or  1,000  pounds,  the  tendency  toward  strains 
and  permanent  impairment  is  introduced  and  in- 
tensified from  the  very  beginning,  while  if  the  mare 
has  heavy,  strong  legs  and  large,  firm  feet,  the  mule 
will  have  some  chance  of  inheriting  in  part  these 
desirable  characteristics. 


MULES  ARE   PROFITABLE  2O9 

CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT 

The  old  idea  that  any  sort  of  an  ill-conditioned 
misfit  of  a  mare  belonging  in  no  particular  market 
class,  and  having  nothing  to  commend  her  as  a 
breeding  animal,  should  be  bred  to  a  jack  with  the 
expectation  of  producing  a  good  mule,  has  been 
entirely  discredited  by  the  practice  of  modern  breed- 
ers. It  is  to  this  erroneous  idea  of  the  nature  of  the 
animal  that  the  mule  owes  all  of  his  reputation  for 
an  evil  disposition.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  mules  which 
have  reasonably  good  breeding  back  of  them,  and 
which  have  been  managed  in  an  intelligent  manner 
in  being  broken  to  work,  are  gentler  and  easier  to 
handle  ahd  are  more  trustworthy  than  the  average 
horse.  Nearly  every  case  of  trickiness  or  vicious- 
ness  on  the  part  of  a  mule  can  be  traced  either  to  a 
similar  tendency  on  the  part  of  its  dam,  or  to  abuse 
and  mismanagement  while  breaking  the  animal  to 
work.  The  attitude  of  careless  or  ignorant  people 
toward  the  mule  in  assuming  that  he  is  naturally 
a  vicious  animal,  and  one  to  be  subdued  by  abuse 
has  been  responsible  for  more  permanently  ruined 
animals  than  any  other  one  cause.  The  mule,  more 
than  any  other  animal,  requires  kind  and  intelligent 
treatment,  and  will  respond  to  this,  while  any  abuse 
during  its  training  period  will  probably  always 
show  its  effect  upon  the  disposition  of  the  animal. 

Where  mules  are  raised  under  farm  conditions, 
it  is  usually  possible  to  handle  the  young  colts 
almost  from  the  time  of  their  birth,  and  it  is  wise 
to  do  this  and  accustom  them  to  being  handled  as 
early  as  possible.  It  will  frequently  be  necessary 
to  tie  the  young  colts  up  when  their  mothers  are 
to  be  worked,  and  they  can  easily  be  accustomed  to 
the  use  of  the  halter  while  very  young,  so  that  later 


210  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

the  task  of  breaking  them  to  lead  will  be  insig- 
nificant. The  general  care  of  the  mule  colt  does 
not  differ  materially  from  that  of  raising  horse 
colts.  Generally,  it  is  less  liable  to  the  diseases 
which  ordinarily  affect  horse  colts,  is  less  liable  to 
injury  from  accident  because  it  will  usually  be 
found  amply  able  to  take  care  of  itself,  and  shows 
a  greater  intelligence  in  extricating  itself  from  dan- 
gerous situations  than  the  ordinary  horse  colt. 
Where  barbed  wire  pastures  are  used,  it  is  very 
seldom  that  a  young  mule  is  injured  in  the  wire, 
while  it  may  be  put  down  as  almost  an  impossibility 
to  raise  five  or  six  horse  colts  under  these  condi- 
tions without  one  or  more  of  them  being  per- 
manently injured  by  the  wire. 

LIBERAL  FEEDING  A  NECESSITY 

It  is  frequently  stated  that  mules  grow  and  de- 
velop and  perform  their  labor  on  less  feed  than  is 
necessary  for  horses.  The  truth  of  this  idea  is 
to  be  seriously  doubted.  It  is  very  unlikely  that 
the  average  mule  will  perform  a  given  amount  of 
work  on  less  feed  than  the  average  horse  of  the 
same  weight  would  consume  in  performing  the 
same  work.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain 
that  the  best  development  of  the  growing  animal 
calls  for  liberal  feeding.  Under  farm  conditions, 
it  is  almost  always  necessary  to  work  the  dam  dur- 
ing a  considerable  part  of  the  summer,  and  un- 
usually good  care  and  feeding  should  be  given  her 
in  order  to  provide  for  a  liberal  flow  of  milk.  The 
colt  will  learn  to  eat  a  little  bran  when  it  is  only  a 
few  weeks  old,  and  a  feed  box  should  be  provided 
and  some  crushed  or  ground  grain,  preferably  oats, 
should  be  kept  where  the  young  animals  can  eat  a 


MULES  ARE   PROFITABLE  211 

few  mouthfuls  whenever  they  will.  In  cases  where 
the  dam  is  found  to  be  not  a  good  brood  mare  and 
having  an  insufficient  milk  supply,  it  is  a  compar- 
atively easy  task  to  teach  the  colt  to  drink  milk.  A 
pint  of  cow's  milk  night  and  morning  will  mate- 
rially aid  in  preventing  retarded  growth. 

Five  months  is  usually  considered  the  proper 
age  for  weaning,  and  the  colt  at  this  time  should 
be  accustomed  to  eating  considerable  hay  and 
grain,  and  should  receive  quite  a  variety  in  order 
that  the  withdrawal  of  the  milk  ration  will  not 
tend  toward  stunted  growth.  If  some  fresh,  green 
pasture  is  available  at  the  weaning  period,  it  will 
be  found  useful  in  keeping  the  colts  in  good  condi- 
tion. This  period,  however,  is  usually  in  the  fall, 
and  unless  special  provision  has  been  made  to  have 
some  good  fall  pasture  the  young  animal  will  prob- 
ably have  to  depend  upon  the  ordinary  barnyard 
feeding.  Alfalfa  or  clover  are  excellent  feeds  for 
this  period,  and,  in  fact,  during  the  first  winter. 
The  grain  ration  should  consist  of  oats  and  cracked 
corn,  if  the  forage  is  of  a  leguminous  character, 
such  as  alfalfa,  or  of  oats  and  bran  if  no  legu- 
minous hays  are  used.  Liberal  feeding,  good  shelter 
and  plenty  of  exercise  during  the  first  winter  and 
plenty  of  good  pasture  during  the  following  sum- 
mer will  keep  the  young  colt  growing,  and  bring 
out  the  maximum  development. 

BREAKING  THE  MULE  TO  WORK 

The  best  time  to  break  colts  to  harness  is  a 
matter  of  some  dispute  among  breeders.  If  the 
breeder  is  disposed  to  place  the  young  animals  at 
hard  work  as  soon  as  they  are  trained  to  the  har- 
ness, then  he  had  better  wait  until  they  are  four 


212  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

years  old.  They  may  very  well  be  broken  to 
harness  at  the  age  of  two,  but  at  this  time  they  are 
too  young  to  be  placed  at  steady  hard  work.  A 
little  light  driving  or  an  occasional  half  day's  light 
work  in  the  field  will  be  of  benefit  to  them,  but  over- 
work at  this  time  will  result  in  stunted  growth.  At 
three  years  old  they  are  shedding  their  teeth,  and 
on  this  account  are  peculiarly  unfitted  for  any  severe 
work.  If  they  have  been  broken  to  harness  as  two- 
year-olds,  the  light  work  and  driving  may  be  kept 
up  while  they  are  three-year-olds,  but  under  no 
circumstances  should  they  be  placed  at  hard  work 
this  year.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to 
their  feeding  at  this  time,  because  frequently 
while  they  are  losing  their  teeth  their  mouths 
will  become  so  sore  as  to  make  it  impossible  for 
them  to  chew  dry,  hard  grain.  If  circumstances 
are  such  that  the  animals  will  be  put  to  work  as 
soon  as  they  are  broken  to  harness,  by  all  means 
wait  until  they  are  four  years  old.  They  will  be 
able  to  do  a  lot  of  work  this  year,  and  when  they  are 
five  years  old  will  be  ready  for  complete  service  of 
all  kinds. 

The  mule's  ears  are  much  more  sensitive  than 
those  of  the  horse,  and  it  is  very  easy  during  the 
training  period  to  develop  permanently  a  bad  habit 
on  the  part  of  the  animal  by  careless  or  rough 
handling  of  its  head.  A  careless  blow  with  a  whip 
or  with  the  hand  across  the  mule's  ears  may  instill 
into  his  mind  a  fear  that  years  will  not  overcome. 
Some  people  have  made  the  practice  of  seizing 
an  unruly  mule  by  the  ears  to  hold  him,  thus 
taking  advantage  of  this  sensitiveness,  but  this  is 
never  a  safe  practice,  as  the  disposition  of  the 
animal  may  be  permanently  ruined  by  such  treat- 
ment. 


MULES  ARE   PROFITABLE  213 

By  the  careful  selection  of  breeding  mares  and 
by  intelligent  care  and  feeding  of  the  growing 
animals,  a  finished  product  is  developed  at  four  or 
five  years  old,  which  will  command,  on  an  aver- 
age, higher  prices  upon  the  market  than  a  horse 
colt  raised  under  similar  conditions.  The  risk  is 
considerably  less,  and  the  expense  no  greater,  while 
the  demand  for  this  type  of  animals  is  continuously 
increasing,  and  will  undoubtedly  do  so  for  years  to 
come.  It  will  pay  enterprising  farmers  to  thor- 
oughly investigate  the  possibilities  of  mule  raising 
with  a  view  to  engaging  in  it  for  the  production  of 
market  types  of  animals. 


CHAPTER  XV 

Baby  Beef 

WHAT   IT   IS 

The  production  of  the  type  of  meat  animals 
known  as  baby  beef  is  a  development  of  compar- 
atively recent  years,  and  has  been  brought  about 
by  the  more  intensive  conditions  of  modern 
American  agriculture.  In  the  old  days  of  cheap 
land  and  free  grass,  the  idea  was  to  raise  cattle 
until  they  reached  the  age  of  four  or  five  years 
before  marketing.  Modern  conditions  require  that 
the  animal  intended  for  slaughter  shall  receive  the 
maximum  amount  of  growth  and  be  ready  for  the 
block  as  young  as  possible  and  with  the  minimum 
of  expense  for  labor  and  feed  in  the  process  of  its 
development.  It  requires  much  more  feed  and 
much  more  time  and  keeps  the  money  locked  up 
for  a  longer  period  to  maintain  beef  cattle  until 
they  are  three  or  four  years  old  before  marketing 
them  than  if  they  are  given  a  forced  rapid  growth 
and  marketed  younger,  and  the  returns  must  be  cor- 
respondingly large  in  order  to  pay  a  profit  and  in- 
terest on  the  initial  investment  for  the  longer  period. 
Market  conditions  in  recent  years  are  such  that 
the  younger  animals  command  the  higher  price, 
and  so  when  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  feed 
and  labor  is  considered,  the  balance  under  farm 
conditions  is  likely  to  be  in  favor  of  the  shorter 
feeding  period.  Under  conditions  where  cattle 
could  subsist  upon  the  free  grass  of  the  open  range 
for  an  indefinite  period,  it  mattered  little  to  the 

214 


BABY   BEEF 


owner  whether  they  were  sold  at  three  or  at  five 
years  of  age,  but  under  farm  conditions  the  rela- 
tive length  of  the  maintenance  period  often  means 
the  difference  between  a  net  profit  and  net  loss. 
If  the  animals  can  be  brought  to  nearly  the  same 
weight  at  the  age  of  from  15  to  24  months,  all  of  the 
feed  for  maintenance  is  saved,  but  half  the  amount 
of  labor  is  expended  and  the  money  represented  in 
the  investment  is  used  for  but  half  the  period. 
These  are  important  considerations  in  growing 
live  stock  of  any  kind. 

This  necessity  for  marketing  finished  beef  animals 
at  the  earliest  possible  date  has  given  rise  to  a  dis- 
tinct market  class  which  is  known  as  baby  beef. 
Generally  speaking,  a  calf  marketed  any  time  after 
the  veal  age  and  under  the  age  of  24  months  in  a 
well-fattened  and  highly  finished  condition  is  classi- 
fied as  baby  beef. 

FASTER  GAINS  POSSIBLE 

The  feeding  of  the  best  type  of  baby  beef  re- 
quires a  high  degree  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
feeder.  One  of  the  greatest  economies  in  feeding 
baby  beef  lies  in  the  fact  that  young  animals  will 
make  gains  upon  a  relatively  smaller  ration  than 
can  be  done  by  older  animals.  Records  show  that 
each  succeeding  year  up  to  the  age  of  five  re- 
quires nearly  50  per  cent  more  feed  for  the 
same  amount  of  gain  than  was  used  the  pre- 
ceding year.  Tests  made  at  the  Illinois  ex- 
periment station  show  that  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing gains  on  yearlings  was  37  per  cent  greater 
than  on  calves,  and  18  per  cent  more  on  two-year- 
olds  than  on  yearlings.  In  these  days  of  high- 
priced  feed,  this  rapid  gain  which  can  be  produced 


21 6  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

by  early  feeding  is  a  very  strong  argument  in  favor 
of  fitting  beef  animals  for  the  block  before  they 
are  two-year-olds.  This  ability  of  young  animals 
to  make  greater  use  of  their  feed  lies  in  the  fact 
that  nearly  half  of  the  feed  consumed  is  used  in 
maintaining  weight  already  gained.  The  larger 
and  heavier  the  animal  the  more  energy,  and  con- 
sequently the  more  feed  is  required  to  keep  up  the 
body  heat,  build  up  broken-down  tissues,  keep  the 
blood  in  circulation  and  perform  the  bodily  func- 
tions incidental  to  maintenance. 

TYPES    AND    KINDS 

In  the  production  of  early  baby  beef,  calves  which 
have  run  with  their  dams  during  the  first  five  or 
six  months  furnish  the  best  foundation  for  high- 
class  feeders.  Such  calves  are  usually  in  better 
flesh  at  weaning  time  and  make  more  thrifty  and 
vigorous  growth  during  their  early  life  and  have 
developed  better  feeding  capacities  than  calves 
which  have  been  hand-fed  the  greater  part  of  this 
period.  Where  the  calves  are  raised  primarily  to 
be  fed  for  baby  beef  and  it  is  desired  to  market 
them  at  the  earliest  possible  age,  feeding  should 
begin  as  soon  as  the  young  calf  can  be  induced  to 
eat,  since  the  successful  finishing  of  baby  beef  is 
essentially  a  forcing  process.  It  is  important  that 
the  maximum  amount  of  growth  and  weight  should 
be  secured  in  the  shortest  possible  time  regardless 
of  considerations  of  the  after  effect,  which  would 
be  imperative  if  the  animal  were  kept  for 
breeding  purposes.  The  sole  object  of  feeding  and 
managing  should  be  to  mature  a  calf  as  young  as 
possible  and  with  a  high  degree  of  quality  and 
finish.  The  best  baby  beef  type  is  the  low-down 


BABY  BEEF  217 

blocky,  compact  form  which  is  typical  only  of  the 
beef  breeds,  or  typical  in  a  marked  degree  only  in 
animals  having  a  large  preponderance  of  clearly 
defined  beef  type.  The  Aberdeen-Angus  is  un- 
questionably the  one  breed  best  suited  to  the  pro- 
duction of  baby  beef  animals.  In  conformation  and 
type,  this  breed  corresponds  most  nearly  to  the 
ideal,  and  its  early  maturing  characteristics  make 
it  especially  desirable  for  the  feeding  and  finishing 
of  young  animals.  Calves  showing  a  large  per- 
centage of  Hereford  or  Shorthorn  blood  also  make 
excellent  feeders.  Frequently  the  dual-purpose 
type  will  finish  very  smoothly,  while  the  dairy 
breeds  have  the  least  adaptation  to  this  use,  al- 
though large  numbers  of  them  are  annually  finished 
for  the  baby  beef  market. 

SOURCES  OF  STOCK 

The  closing  out  of  many  of  the  large  cattle 
ranches  of  the  West  in  recent  years  has  thrown  upon 
the  markets  large  numbers  of  high-grade  range  cows 
with  calves  following  them.  This  stock  is  usually 
marketed  in  late  summer  after  having  had  the 
benefit  of  the  best  summer  grass  available  upon 
the  range,  and  are  usually  in  excellent  condition. 
The  calves  will  be  found  thrifty  and  of  large  frame 
and  good  feeding  capacity  and  average,  perhaps,  400 
pounds  in  weight.  This  class  of  cattle  is  placed 
upon  the  market  when  the  calves  are  at  the  proper 
age  for  wreaning,  and  many  thousands  of  them  have 
been  purchased  by  the  middle  western  farmers  to 
be  finished  for  baby  beef.  The  cumulative  effect  of 
30  years  or  more  of  pure-bred  sires  upon  the  west- 
ern ranges  shows  itself  in  the  high-class  cross-bred 
Herefords  and  Shorthorns  which  are  now  yearly 
offered  in  the  markets  of  Chicago,  Kansas  City  and 


2l8  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

Omaha.  This  excellent  beef  type  is  especially 
noticeable  in  the  calves  marketed  and  shows  to  its 
best  advantage  in  the  finishing  of  calves  for  baby 
beef.  Their  active  life  upon  the  open  range,  usually 
with  an  abundance  of  feed,  has  given  them  a  good 
frame  and  has  developed  a  large  feeding  capacity, 
and  these  characteristics  are  made  use  of  when  the 
calf  is  put  in  the  feed  lot  in  the  fall. 

Another  source  from  which  large  numbers  of 
calves  are  drawn  for  early  feeding  are  the  dairy 
farms  which  are  so  situated  as  not  to  be  able  to 
raise  the  calves  to  maturity.  These  farms  are 
found  especially  in  dairy  districts  contiguous  to 
large  cities  which  furnish  a  market  for  all  the  milk 
produced  at  such  prices  that  it  is  often  thought  un- 
profitable to  use  the  milk  for  feeding  calves.  A 
good  many  of  the  calves  from  these  dairies  are  sold 
as  veal,  but  large  numbers  are  also  fed  on  milk  for 
a  short  time,  until  they  are  able  to  eat  grain  and 
other  concentrated  feeds.  They  may  be  purchased 
at  very  reasonable  prices  as  soon  as  they  are  old 
enough  to  eat  grain  and  are  taken  to  farms  in  the 
grain-growing  districts.  It  is  often  possible  for  the 
farmer  who  is  favorably  situated  for  feeding  to  buy 
one  or  more  carloads  of  calves  each  year  in  his  own 
immediate  neighborhood  by  picking  up  a  few  in 
each  place.  The  high  price  of  land  and  the  grow- 
ing scarcity  of  grazing  land  makes  it  imperative 
that  stock  of  this  kind  shall  be  finished  and  mar- 
keted immediately,  and  so  the  greater  number  of 
these  animals  purchased  at  random  throughout  the 
country  are  fattened  and  marketed  under  two  years 
old. 

As  has  already  been  explained,  the  very  best  class 
of  baby  beef  is  produced  from  calves  of  the  most 
pronounced  beef  type.  It  does  not  necessarily  fol- 


BABY  BEEF 


low,  however,  that  only  one  extreme  type  will  re- 
turn a  profit  from  the  feed  yard.  Calves  from  dual 
purpose  breeds,  such  as  milking  Shorthorns  or  Red 
Polled,  frequently  finish  very  smoothly  and  make 
good  use  of  their  feed.  The  purely  dairy  breeds 
can  usually,  with  careful  feeding  and  good  care,  be 
fattened  at  good  profit.  Holstein  calves  are  espe- 
cially adaptable  to  this  purpose  when  they  are 
handled  from  the  time  of  birth  with  the  idea  of 
marketing  them  for  beef.  The  heavy  grain  feed- 
ing forces  a  rapid  growth  and  a  corresponding  pro- 
duction of  fat,  so  that  the  pronounced  dairy  type 
does  not  predominate  until  15  or  16  months  old,  and 
by  this  time  they  should  be  ready  for  market. 

HOW  TO  FEED 

It  is  unquestionably  true  that  the  most  rapid 
growth  and  the  best  development  of  the  beef  type 
can  be  produced  by  beginning  comparatively  heavy 
grain  feeding  while  the  calves  are  still  with  their 
dams.  This  grain  feeding  should  be  begun  as  soon 
as  the  calves  will  eat,  when  they  may  be  given  a 
little  bran  and  crushed  oats.  They  will  learn  to  eat 
shelled  corn  at  an  early  age,  and  this  should  be 
gradually  introduced,  after  which  the  grain  ration 
should  be  about  one-half  shelled  corn,  one-fourth 
oats  and  one-fourth  bran.  There  is  no  single  grain 
calculated  to  form  a  more  satisfactory  supplement 
to  the  milk  diet  than  oats,  and  if  one  grain  only  is 
available  it  should  be  this  one.  Its  high  protein 
content  in  connection  with  the  well-balanced  ration 
furnished  by  milk  serves  to  build  a  good  frame  and 
tends  toward  muscular  development.  Shelled  corn 
is  a  fattening  feed,  and  when  used  in  connection 
with  the  oats  and  milk  completes  a  ration  which 
includes  the  maximum  amount  of  muscle  and  fat 


22O  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

formation  which  is  so  desirable  in  this  kind  of  feed- 
ing. This  grain  feeding  may  be  begun  when  the 
calf  is  about  two  months  old  and  gradually  in- 
creased until  as  much  is  given  as  the  animal  will 
consume.  The  calf  should  be  weaned  when  it  is 
five  or  six  months  old.  The  weaning  time  will 
generally  be  in  late  summer  or  early  autumn.  At 
this  time,  the  feed  should  be  varied  so  that  it  will 
include  oil  meal  or  cottonseed  meal.  The  percent- 
age of  shelled  corn  may  be  increased  at  this  time 
also.  A  satisfactory  grain  mixture  consists  of  80 
per  cent  shelled  corn,  10  per  cent  oats  and  10  per 
cent  linseed  oil  meal.  Calves  at  this  age  will  con- 
sume from  17  to  20  pounds  of  grain  per  1,000 
pounds  of  live  weight.  As  the  milk  ration  is  with- 
drawn, it  will  be  well  to  take  particular  pains  to 
provide  green  feed.  There  will  usually  be  clover 
or  some  other  freshly  mown  hay  available  for  feed 
at  the  weaning  period  in  case  pasture  is  short.  Green 
sweet  corn  or  ordinary  field  corn  may  be  cut  and  fed 
with  advantage  at  this  time,  gradually  leading  up 
to  dry,  shocked  corn  which  it  may  be  desirable  to 
feed  later  in  the  winter.  It  is  best  to  keep  the 
calves  on  green  pasture  as  late  in  the  fall  as  it  is 
possible  while  at  the  same  time  keeping  them  well 
supplied  with  all  the  grain  that  they  will  eat.  As 
the  pasture  is  used  up,  it  would  be  replaced  with 
increasing  amounts  of  roughage,  and  the  change 
from  pasture  conditions  to  the  dry  feed  lot  will 
thus  be  made  without  any  setback  to  growth  and 
without  any  serious  derangement  of  the  animals' 
digestive  systems. 

FORAGE    AND     SUCCULENCE 

Alfalfa,  clover  or  cowpeas  form  most  satisfactory 
forage  for  winter  feeding.     Corn  fodder  is  in  com- 


BABY  BEEF  221 

mon  use  in  many  sections  of  the  middle  West  and  is 
greatly  relished  by  the  calves.  It  has  been  the 
experience  of  certain  Indiana  farmers  who  make  a 
practice  of  feeding  clover  hay  and  corn  fodder  that 
the  calves  will  consume  bright,  well-cured  clean 
fodder  in  preference  to  clover  and  make  excellent 
gains  upon  it.  The  experience  of  feeders  who  have 
practiced  shredding  corn  fodder  and  storing  it  in 
large  stacks  for  winter  feeding  also  bears  out  this 
statement.  Shredded  fodder  in  large  stacks  is  likely 
to  heat  a  little  and  undergo  a  mild  fermentation, 
and  it  is  the  opinion  of  some  feeders  that  this  adds 
both  to  palatability  and  digestibility.  While  it  is 
true  that  the  larger  percentage  of  calves  finished 
for  baby  beef  do  not  receive  any  succulent  feed  dur- 
ing the  winter,  it  is  equally  true  that  feeds  of  this 
character  introduced  into  the  ration  return  large 
profits  upon  its  cost.  The  value  of  succulent  feed 
is  not  so  much  in  its  intrinsic  fattening  properties 
as  in  its  tendency  to  regulate  the  digestive  system 
of  the  animal  in  such  a  way  that  a  larger  percent- 
age of  the  grain  and  hay  is  transformed  into  fat 
and  muscle.  In  other  words,  it  enables  the  animal 
to  make  better  use  of  the  concentrated  feeds  and 
forage  given.  The  liberal  use  of  succulent  feeds 
tends  to  produce  the  juiciness  of  meat  and  the  high 
finish  of  the  animal  which  is  so  characteristic  of 
first-class  baby  beef.  Corn  silage  is  one  of  the 
most  satisfactory  feeds  of  this  character,  and  one 
of  the  most  easily  available  throughout  the  corn 
belt.  Root  crops  of  all  kinds,  such  as  sugar  beets 
and  mangel-wurzels  are  also  valuable,  and  in  sugar- 
growing  districts  beet  pulp  from  the  factories 
makes  a  very  excellent  succulent  ration.  Calves 
which  have  been  raised  by  their  dams,  and  have 
been  fed  in  the  manner  just  described  should  be 


PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

ready  for  market  at  the  age  of  from  n  to  12  months, 
and  should  weigh  at  this  time  anywhere  from  800 
to  i  ,000  pounds. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  HAND-RAISED  CALVES 

Calves  which  have  been  raised  on  skimmed  milk 
will  usually  be  slower  in  maturing  and  will  not 
ordinarily  be  marketed  under  15  to  18  months  old. 
The  method  of  handling  hand-raised  calves  is  es- 
sentially the  same  as  when  they  have  followed  their 
dams.  The  hand-raised  calf  at  the  weaning  age  will 
usually  have  a  larger  frame  and  carry  less  flesh 
than  the  calf  which  has  had  its  natural  ration  of 
whole  milk.  The  natural  tendency  of  the  calf  at 
this  age  is  to  develop  frame  and  muscle,  and  to  off- 
set this  tendency  a  heavy  percentage  of  fat-forming 
feed  should  be  given. 

HEIFERS  FINISH  WELL 

Heifer  calves  have  a  particular  adaptation  for 
feeding  for  baby  beef.  When  fed  for  this  purpose 
they  take  on  flesh  very  rapidly  and  acquire  as 
good  a  finish  than  steers;  in  some  cases  better. 
There  is  no  discrimination  against  them  when  of- 
fered for  sale  in  the  markets,  and  their  meat  is  equal 
to  that  of  the  best  steers.  The  large  numbers  of 
western  cattle  offered  for  sale  every  fall  has  always 
thrown  numbers  of  heifers  on  the  market,  and 
sometimes  causes  serious  depreciation  in  the  price 
of  this  class  of  animals.  The  increased  feeding  of 
baby  beef  in  all  sections  of  the  corn  belt  offers  a 
very  satisfactory  outlet  for  this  class  of  stock,  and 
indicates  the  most  satisfactory  and  profitable 
method  for  marketing  it. 


BABY   BEEF 

FINISH    AND    QUALITY 


223 


The  object  to  be  most  emphasized  at  all  times 
in  feeding  baby  beef  is  the  securing  of  quality  and 
finish  in  connection  with  rapid  and  economical 
gains.  The  value  of  a  high  finish  is  apparent  by 
the  way  in  which  it  influences  values.  Suppose  a 
steer  is  marketed  at  the  age  of  18  months  and  at 
the  weight  of  1,200  pounds.  Every  fourth  of  a  cent 


HEATING   WATER   SUPPLY 

difference  in  price  per  pound  makes  a  difference  of 
$3  in  the  value  of  the  steer.  A  difference 
of  one  cent  per  pound  makes  a  difference  of 
$12  in  the  selling  price.  If  this  same  steer,  be- 
cause of  low  finish,  sells  at  4  cents  per  pound  while 
another  of  high  finish  sells  for  5^  cents  per  pound, 
the  difference  in  price  between  the  two  steers  will 
amount  to  $18.  This  upon  a  carload  of  20  would 
amount  to  $360,  and  might  mean  the  difference 
between  net  profit  and  net  loss  on  the  feeding 
operations. 


224  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

MARKETING 

The  time  for  marketing  baby  beef  is  in  the  sum- 
mer or  late  spring  at  a  period  when  packers  do  not 
desire  the  heavy  carcasses  of  older  animals  coming 
from  a  long  feeding  period  in  the  feed  lots.  It  is 
not  always  possible  to  market  the  baby  beef  at  this 
time,  because,  like  all  other  types  of  fat  animals, 
they  cannot  be  profitably  held  for  any  great  length 
of  time  after  they  are  finished.  For  this  reason,  it 
is  necessary  to  market  in  early  spring  calves  which 
were  born  early  the  previous  spring,  and  which 
have  been  forced  constantly  throughout  the  year. 
The  hand-raised  calves  purchased  from  the  dairy 
districts  lend  themselves  very  well  to  marketing 
when  market  demands  are  favorable  for  this  type 
of  beef.  These  calves  are  fed  heavily  during  the 
winter,  and  are  turned  upon  pasture  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  is  practicable,  the  heavy  grain  feeding 
being  continued.  They  will  make  rapid  gains  and 
acquire  excellent  finish  and  quality  during  this 
forcing  period  of  their  second  summer,  after  the 
winter  feeding  with  its  long-continued  use  of  dry 
forage.  The  change  is  a  very  wholesome  one,  how- 
ever, and  extremely  cheap  gains  may  be  expected 
from  this  last  period  of  the  feeding  season.  They 
should  be  finished  by  July  or  August,  being  from 
17  to  18  months  old  at  this  time,  and  may  be  thus 
marketed  at  the  season  when  the  packers  demand 
light  carcasses.  Beef  of  this  character  is  in 
great  demand  in  the  summer,  and  prices  are  most 
likely  to  be  high  at  this  time. 

The  feeding  of  baby  beef  may  be  found  profitable 
under  conditions  where  it  is  not  possible  to  main- 
tain steers  until  they  have  reached  the  age  to  be  fed 
for  heavy  beef.  Its  greatest  utility  is  found  upon 


BABY  BEEF  225 

farms  having  a  limited  amount  of  pasturage,  but 
where  it  is  not  possible  to  keep  breeding  animals 
in  sufficient  numbers  to  raise  heavy  steers  for  mar- 
ket trade.  The  ease  and  relative  cheapness  with 
which  gains  are  secured  upon  young  animals  and 
the  relative  high  prices  which  the  market  has 
offered  in  recent  years  gives  this  type  of  feeding 
under  present  farm  conditions  a  decided  advantage 
over  the  old  plan  of  fattening  steers. 

INDIANA    EXPERIENCE 

During  recent  seasons  a  considerable  number 
of  western  calves  were  finished  for  baby  beef  in  cen- 
tral Indiana.  Among  the  more  successful  feeders  is 
Ed  Flannigan  of  Franklin  county.  In  1908  Mr. 
Flannigan  purchased  30  head  of  high-grade  Here- 
ford calves  in  Kansas  City,  shipped  them  to  his 
Indiana  farm,  and  fed  them  out  for  baby  beef.  The 
results  were  so  satisfactory  that  the  following  fall 
he  purchased  60  head  at  the  same  market  for  him- 
self, and  something  like  600  head  for  neighboring 
farmers  in  Franklin  county.  The  60  head  which 
Mr.  Flannigan  retained  for  his  own  feeding  were 
unusually  high-grade  Herefords.  They  were  un- 
branded,  which  showed  that  they  probably  came 
from  Kansas  or  Oklahoma  stock  farms.  When 
seen  in  March,  in  the  feeding  pens,  they  were  in 
most  excellent  condition,  and  their  quality  showed 
to  the  very  best  advantage.  It  would  have  taken 
an  expert  to  distinguish  them  from  pure-bred  Here- 
fords.  As  to  the  details  of  handling  these  cattle 
from  the  time  they  were  taken  from  their  mothers, 
and  the  feeds  and  feeding  methods  used,  Mr.  Flan- 
nigan stated  that  the  calves  averaged  400  pounds 
when  purchased  in  Kansas  City,  and  that  they  cost 
him  $4.75  per  100  pounds. 


226  PROFITABLE   STOCK  RAISING 

This  original  cost,  however,  was  increased  to  ap- 
proximately $5  per  100  pounds  by  the  time  the  ex- 
pense of  shipping  from  Kansas  City  to  Franklin, 
Ind.,  was  added.  They  were  about  four  or  five 
months  old  when  they  arrived  upon  Mr.  Flannigan's 
farm  late  in  October.  In  order  to  make  the  change 
from  milk  to  dry  feed  less  abrupt,  he  placed  them 
upon  blue  grass  pasture  for  a  short  period,  gradu- 
ally introducing  clean,  new  clover  hay  where  they 
could  get  it,  and  learn  to  eat  it.  Upon  this  hay,  after  a 
short  time,  he  sprinkled  small  quantities  of  cracked 
corn,  so  that  the  calves  would  eat  some  of  it  with 
the  hay,  and  thus  gradually  acquire  a  taste  for  corn. 
Later,  he  fed  them  small  amounts  of  corn  in  the 
shock,  so  that  they  learned  to  eat  fodder.  By  the 
time  the  calves  were  placed  in  the  dry  lot,  some 
time  in  November,  they  had  learned  to  eat  all  kinds 
of  roughage  as  well  as  corn. 

Practically  all  the  feed  they  received  was  pro- 
duced on  the  farm,  the  only  feed  purchased  being 
some  amounts  of  cottonseed  meal.  Corn  fodder 
and  clover  hay  formed  the  roughage  ration,  and 
cracked  corn,  with  occasionally  a  little  cottonseed 
meal,  was  the  grain  ration.  The  calves  made  con- 
tinued, steady  gains  from  the  very  day  they  ar- 
rived upon  the  farm.  The  fodder  given  them  had 
been  cut  and  placed  in  large  shocks  in  the  very  best 
of  condition,  and  came  out  all  through  the  winter 
bright,  green  and  free  from  dust.  It  was  greatly 
relished  by  the  stock.  Although  good,  clean  clover 
hay  was  available  for  the  calves  every  day,  they 
invariably  ate  their  corn  fodder  first,  apparently 
relishing  it  more  than  the  hay. 

The  amount  of  corn  was  gradually  increased  until 
the  calves  were  given  all  the  grain  that  they  would 
clean  up  every  day.  At  the  period  when  they  were 


BABY   BEEF 


eating  most,  the  60  head  received  about  seven 
bushels  per  day  of  shelled  and  cracked  corn,  or 
about  6J/2  pounds  per  head.  They  were  given  all 
the  roughage  they  would  consume,  and  no  especial 
record  was  kept  of  the  amount  consumed  at  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  feeding  period.  Basing  an  es- 
timate of  the  total  amount  to  be  consumed  from 
November  to  May,  inclusively,  upon  the  amounts 
which  he  had  already  fed  up  to  the  middle  of 
March,  Mr.  Flannigan  stated  that  about  21  loads 
of  clover  hay,  and  all  the  fodder  from  30  acres  of 
unusually  heavy  corn  would  be  consumed  by  the  60 
head  of  calves.  Fresh  water  was  available  to  the 
animals  at  all  times,  both  day  and  night.  A  tank 
heater  was  used  in  winter  to  keep  the  temperature 
up. 

The  calves  spent  the  winter  for  the  most  part  in 
the  open  air.  There  was  a  large,  straw-covered 
shed,  at  one  side  of  the  corral,  and  the  stock  were 
free  to  enter  this  shed  at  any  time.  They  seemed, 
however,  to  prefer  the  outside,  even  in  the  very 
coldest  nights  of  winter,  except  on  two  or  three 
occasions  when  a  wet,  heavy  snow  was  falling. 
The  hogs  following  the  cattle  had  shelled  corn  and 
hominy  grits  where  they  could  have  access  to  them 
in  a  pen  apart  from  the  cattle.  Very  rapid  gains 
were  obtained  from  the  hog  feeding  part  of  the 
proposition.  Approximately,  two  pounds  per  head 
per  day  represents  the  gain  of  the  cattle  through- 
out the  feeding  period.  Mr.  Flannigan  sold  these 
cattle  in  May,  and  the  average  weight  at  this  time 
was  about  750  pounds  per  head.  In  addition  to  the 
cash  returns,  which  gave  a  very  high  rate  of  gain, 
both  for  the  corn  and  forage  consumed,  a  large 
amount  of  valuable  manure  was  available  for  use 
Upon  the  land.  After  the  close  of  the  feeding  period 


228  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

last  year,  Mr.  Flannigan  applied  a  heavy  coating  of 
manure  to  70  acres  of  corn  land,  and  top-dressed 
30  acres  of  wheat.  This  year  there  was  sufficient 
manure  to  cover  about  100  acres  of  land  with  a 
rich  top-dressing.  This  cumulative  effect  of  con- 
tinuous feeding,  whereby  the  accretions  of  one  year's 
feeding  serves  to  materially  increase  the  yield  of 
next  year's  crop  is  by  no  means  the  least  impor- 
tant feature  to  be  considered  in  computing  the 
total  results  of  a  year's  operations. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Hothouse  Lambs 

The  production  of  hothouse  lambs  on  farms 
within  reasonable  proximity  to  large  cities  has 
become  one  of  the  important  specialized  forms  of 
animal  husbandry  within  recent  years.  By  hot- 
house lambs,  which  are  also  called  milk  lambs  or 
winter  lambs,  is  meant  lambs  which  are  born  in 
late  autumn  or  early  winter,  and  so  managed  that 
a  rapid  forced  growth  is  secured  and  the  animals 
marketed  while  they  are  still  being  suckled  by  their 
dams.  The  meat  of  such  lambs  is  juicy,  tender 
and  of  a  delicate  flavor  and  commands  relatively 
high  prices  in  certain  city  markets.  The  principal 
consumers  of  this  product  are  the  large  hotels, 
fashionable  clubs  and  wealthy  families  of  large 
cities. 

EQUIPMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Success  in  this  industry,  perhaps  more  than  in 
any  other  branch  of  stock  raising,  requires  the 
proper  equipment  for  handling  the  stock  and  pro- 
tecting it  in  winter.  It  also  requires  skill  and  judg- 
ment in  breeding  and  feeding  in  a  very  marked 
degree.  The  ewes  must  be  bred  so  that  the  lambs 
will  arrive  at  the  desired  time,  which  is  seldom 
later  than  the  first  week  in  December  and  may  be 
any  time  in  November.  The  ewes  should  have  a 
marked  tendency  toward  being  heavy  milkers,  so 
that  the  young  lambs  will  grow  rapidly  and  become 
fat  at  the  proper  time  for  marketing.  Good  shelter 


230  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

must  be  provided  to  prevent  severe  losses  of  the 
lambs  at  the  time  of  birth  and  to  insure  against 
shrinkage  on  account  of  cold  weather  during  grow- 
ing time. 

BREEDING 

The  Dorset  sheep,  or  cross-bred  Dorset  Merino, 
are  the  most  suitable  of  the  best-known  American 
sheep  for  breeding  for  winter  lambs,  because  they 
will  breed  at  any  season  of  the  year,  and  the  ar- 
rival of  the  lambs  can  be  timed  to  suit  the  desires 
of  the  owner.  Professor  Shaw,  at  the  Minnesota 
experiment  station,  crossed  ordinary  range  ewes 
with  Dorset  rams,  and  then  selected  from  this  off- 
spring the  ewe  lambs  which  showed  markedly  the 
early  breeding  tendencies  of  the  Dorset  for  the 
second  cross,  and  at  the  end  of  three  generations 
had  established  a  very  successful  type  of  sheep  for 
the  production  of  winter  lambs.  In  addition  to  the 
hardy  qualities  of  the  common  western  sheep,  this 
stock  showed  the  early  breeding  tendencies  and 
quick-maturing  qualities  of  the  Dorset.  This 
breeding  procedure  may  be  safely  recommended  to 
any  farmer  who  desires  to  develop  the  best  type  of 
breeding  ewes  for  raising  hothouse  lambs.  An  ex- 
cellent breeding  practice  is  the  crossing  of  ewes  of 
the  type  just  described  with  Hampshire  or  Cleve- 
land rams.  This  will  tend  to  produce  unusually 
large  lambs,  and  while  the  cross  would  be  unfavor- 
able if  the  lambs  were  to  be  kept  to  maturity,  it 
will  tend  toward  the  production  of  lambs  of  a  mar- 
ketable weight  in  a  shorter  period  of  time  than  by 
any  other  method.  The  more  common  practice  is 
the  crossing  of  this  type  of  ewes  with  Shropshire 
rams. 


HOTHOUSE   LAMBS  23! 

FEEDING   AND    CARE 

The  management  of  ewes  previous  to  lambing 
requires  no  special  methods  not  ordinarily  used  in 
the  general  care  of  breeding  ewes.  Throughout 
the  autumn  they  should  be  allowed  the  range  of 
the  farm,  grazing  wherever  feed  is  to  be  found.  In 
case  the  pasturage  is  insufficient  to  keep  the  ewes  in 
the  very  best  of  condition,  a  liberal  quantity  of  clover 
hay  or  sheaf  oats,  or  some  other  feed  having  a  high 
protein  content,  should  be  given.  It  is  not  essen- 
tial to  have  the  ewes  extremely  fat  at  this  time, 
but  they  should  be  kept  in  a  strong,  vigorous  con- 
dition, without  which  it  will  be  impossible  for  them 
to  produce  thrifty,  quick-growing  lambs.  If  they 
are  given  the  freedom  of  the  farm,  they  will  obtain 
for  themselves  the  exercise  so  essential.  If,  how- 
ever, for  any  reason,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  ewes 
in  a  small  inclosure,  some  provision  should  be  made 
for  plenty  of  exercise.  As  lambing  time  approaches 
the  ration  given  should  include  more  and  more  of 
feeds  calculated  to  produce  a  heavy  flow  of  milk. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  have  the  milk  production  of 
the  ewes  at  the  maximum  from  the  time  the  lambs 
are  born.  This  change  from  ordinary  feeding  to 
feeding  for  a  heavy  milk  flow  cannot  be  made  sud- 
denly, so  preparation  for  it  should  begin  several 
weeks  before  the  actual  time  of  lambing.  In  prob- 
ably no  other  line  of  stock  feeding,  with  the  pos- 
sible exception  of  the  production  of  market  milk, 
is  the  value  of  succulent  feed  so  apparent  as  in  the 
raising  of  hothouse  lambs.  The  silo  is  a  valuable, 
although  not  indispensable  adjunct  to  this  industry. 
Succulence  may  consist  either  of  corn  silage  or  of 
any  of  the  common  root  crops  which  are  in  use  for 
stock  feeding.  A  liberal  supply  of  leguminous  hay 


232  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

will  be  found  almost  indispensable  in  feeding  for 
this  heavy  milk  production.  If  it  is  impossible  to 
supply  this  feed,  by  all  means  see  that  the  ration 
contains  a  very  high  protein  content.  This  can  be 
furnished  by  oats,  bran  and  similar  feeds.  The 
ration  for  ewes  at  this  time  will  not  differ  materially 
from  the  feeds  given  in  a  dairy  for  forcing  high 
milk  production. 

SHELTER 

Good,  warm  shelter  is  essential,  and  ample  pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  keeping  all  the  animals 
under  shelter  during  most  of  the  growing  period  of 
the  lambs.  One  man  can  usually  handle  from  125 
to  175  head  of  ewes  very  easily  if  stabling  facilities 
are  properly  arranged.  Not  only  must  the  quarters 
be  warm,  but  they  must  be  dry  and  well  ventilated. 
It  is  impossible  for  lambs  or  any  other  young 
animals  to  make  their  best  growth  in  damp,  dark, 
ill-ventilated  barns  or  basements  such  as  are  some- 
times used  for  this  purpose.  The  basement  of  the 
barn  may, however,  be  arranged  so  as  to  form  almost 
ideal  quarters  for  the  lambs  if  it  has  a  south  exposure 
so  that  the  winter  sunlight  may  be  used  to  the  best 
advantage.  Ample  bedding  of  clean,  dry  straw 
should  be  provided,  and  the  ventilation  should  em- 
brace some  system  which,  while  admitting  plenty 
of  fresh  air,  does  not  permit  cold  winter  winds  to 
enter  at  any  time.  Young  lambs  are  singularly 
susceptible  to  the  influence  of  temperature  and  may 
easily  be  fatally  chilled.  The  details  of  feeding 
and  managing  of  the  ewes  and  lambs  can  be  easily 
worked  out  if  the  ultimate  object  be  kept  in  view. 
This  object  is  to  secure  a  forced  growth  of  the 
young  lambs  from  the  moment  of  birth.  Upon 


HOTHOUSE   LAMBS  233 

farms  where  a  surplus  of  cow's  milk  is  available, 
it  will  frequently  pay  to  feed  a  liberal  ration  of  this 
to  the  young  lambs  to  supplement  the  milk  ration 
furnished  by  the  ewes.  It  is  no  great  task  to  teach 
the  young  animals  to  drink,  and  this  extra  milk 
ration  will  have  a  marked  effect  in  fitting  the  lambs 
for  the  market.  At  the  earliest  possible  moment  a 
grain  ration  should  be  added.  If  the  lambs  be 
given  individual  attention  they  may  be  taught  to 
eat  sifted  oatmeal  or  ground  barley  and  a  little  oil 
cake  while  very  young.  This  is  best  fed  by  fixing 
a  creep  for  the  lambs  so  that  they  can  have  access 
to  a  trough  containing  some  of  this  mixed  grain 
without  being  disturbed. 

A  difficulty  which  is  likely  to  be  met  when  the 
sheep  are  kept  closely  confined  under  shelter,  as  is 
necessary  for  the  growing  of  winter  lambs,  is  that 
the  older  and  stronger  lambs  are  likely  to  rob  the 
younger  ones  of  their  feed.  This  point  should  be 
watched  and  met  by  the  prompt  separation  of  the 
smaller  and  weaker  lambs  in  pens  by  themselves. 
It  will  also  require  constant  close  attention  to  keep 
the  young  lambs  free  from  stomach  worms  and 
other  parasitic  disorders.  The  ordinary  well-known 
means  of  combating  these  pests  will  suffice  equally 
well  for  young  lambs  of  this  character.  The  most 
effectual  treatment  for  stomach  worms  and  in- 
testinal parasites  of  all  kinds  is  the  administering 
of  a  small  quantity  of  gasoline  to  each  lamb  sus- 
pected of  infestation.  The  growing  lambs  will  soon 
learn  to  nibble  at  fine,  well-cured  alfalfa  or  clover 
hay,  and  will  consume  considerable  quantities  of  it 
if  it  is  kept  constantly  available  to  them.  These 
nibbling  propensities  may  be  taken  advantage  of 
in  keeping  the  animals  healthy  by  placing  a  small 
quantity  of  tobacco  stems  in  one  end  of  their  man- 


234  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

gers  so  that  they  will  occasionally  eat  a  little  of  the 
weed,  which  tends  to  prevent  parasitic  troubles. 

MARKETING 

Profit  from  winter  lambs  is  not  entirely  a  ques- 
tion of  breeding  the  sheep,  of  handling  or  manag- 
ing, or  feeding  or  sheltering  or  protecting  them  in 
winter.  Attention  to  all  these  factors  would  fail 
to  produce  a  profit  unless  there  is  a  reasonable 
proximity  of  market.  It  is  obviously  impossible 
to  ship  lambs  which  have  not  yet  learned  to  subsist 
without  their  mother's  milk  to  any  great  distance 
with  the  expectation  of  selling  them  for  slaughter 
upon  their  arrival.  The  suffering  of  the  animals 
under  these  conditions  would  be  extreme,  and  the 
shrinkage  would  be  so  great  as  to  wipe  out  any 
possible  profits.  A  few  years  ago  a  Colorado  sheep 
man  shipped  some  ten-week-old  lambs  direct  from 
the  range  to  Kansas  City  with  the  expectation  of 
selling  them  as  milk  lambs.  After  separating  them 
from  their  dams,  they  were  loaded  into  a  car  and 
forwarded  as  rapidly  as  possible,  but  the  shrinkage 
was  great  and  the  lambs  arrived  in  such  poor  con- 
dition as  to  be  almost  unsalable.  The  experiment 
was  a  total  failure.  The  most  successful  producers 
of  hothouse  lambs  are  found  under  farm  conditions 
where  from  50  to  200  ewes  can  be  handled.  By 
continued  selection  of  breeding  stock  a  large  per- 
centage of  ewes  can  be  secured  which  will  bear 
twin  lambs,  and  in  this  way  the  increase  may  be  as 
high  as  150  per  cent.  It  is  customary  to  slaughter 
these  lambs  upon  the  farm  a  few  at  a  time  and  ship 
the  dressed  carcasses  by  express  to  city  markets, 
the  sales  having  been  made  previous  to  slaughter- 
ing the  animals.  In  this  way  shrinkage  is  avoided. 


HOTHOUSE   LAMBS  235 

Quality  and  high  finish  are  essential  to  the  securing 
of  high  prices  for  this  product,  and  this  method  of 
marketing  them  avoids  the  loss  of  quality  which  is 
sure  to  follow  the  marketing  of  milk-fed  animals  on 
the  hoof. 

WEIGHT    FOR    MARKET 

Winter  lamb  production  is  not  a  difficult  proposi- 
tion, although  the  farmer  must  be  prepared  to  take 
the  best  of  care  of  his  sheep,  and  must  be  willing 
to  spend  considerable  extra  effort  upon  details. 
Lambs  properly  managed  and  well  nourished 
should  gain  one  pound  per  day  from  the  day  of 
birth  until  marketed.  Just  what  weight  is  best  for 
marketing  is  a  matter  of  some  uncertainty,  rang- 
ing from  45  to  60  pounds. 

PROFITS 

Since  not  infrequently  as  much  as  25  cents  per 
pound  dressed  weight  is  realized  for  them  it  can  be 
seen  that  the  profits  are  quite  large.  Each  lamb 
may  net  from  $8  to  $12.  These  prices  can  be 
secured  only  by  having  the  lambs  ready  for  market 
at  the  time  when  the  greatest  demand  exists.  If 
they  are  finished  too  early  and  sold  during  the 
holiday  season  they  come  in  competition  with  the 
immense  quantities  of  poultry  annually  fattened  for 
the  Christmas  market.  On  the  other  hand,  if  they 
are  offered  for  sale  too  late  in  the  season,  they  will 
have  to  compete  with  feed-lot  lambs  and  thus  the 
high  prices  will  not  be  realized.  This  period  be- 
tween the  holidays  and  the  first  appearance  of  corn- 
fed  lambs,  including  January  and  most  of  February, 
is  the  time  when  farmers  should  plan  to  market 


236  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

their  hothouse  lambs.  In  spite  of  the  high  per- 
centage of  profit  frequently  made,  this  business  has 
never  yet  been  overdone,  and  there  is  a  very  con- 
siderable field  for  the  industry  upon  farms  within 
reasonable  distances  of  the  larger  cities  of  this 
country. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

Pastures  for  Grazing  Farm  Animals 

About  one-third  of  the  improved  land  in  the 
United  States  is  used  for  pasturage  purposes.  In 
other  words,  about  300,000,000  acres  are  devoted  to 
the  growing  of  grasses  in  the  cultivated  area.  This 
does  not  take  into  account  the  millions  of  acres  on 
the  range.  It  is  a  pretty  safe  conclusion  that  very 
little  of  this  land  is  yielding  what  it  really  ought  to. 
Pasture  improvement  has  been  neglected.  The 
selection  of  grass  seeds  has  never  been  given  very 
much  attention.  This  comes  about  largely  from  the 
fact  that  the  real  value  of  the  pasture  is  not  recog- 
nized by  very  many  people.  Grass  furnishes  the 
cheapest  and  best  feed  for  developing  young 
animals,  and  it  is  most  satisfactory  for  maintaining 
breeding  stock.  It  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  ad- 
junct during  the  fattening  period.  It  costs  nothing 
to  raise  grasses  when  pasture  is  once  started.  The 
crop  requires  no  particular  attention,  so  that  it  is 
surprising  that  this  problem  has  never  been  more 
thoroughly  studied. 

In  England  the  value  of  good  pasture  is  recog- 
nized. An  English  farmer  being  asked  how  to  secure 
a  good  turf,  said :  "  Oh,  that  is  easy.  Prepare 
your  ground  well,  be  careful  in  selecting  your  seed 
mixture  and  then  roll  each  spring  for  300  years  and 
you  will  get  a  good  turf."  Some  of  the  best  pas- 
tures in  England  are  hundreds  and  hundreds  of 
years  old. 

The  idea  of  permanent  pasture  is  growing  in  this 
country.  A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  very  few 

237 


238  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

Americans  would  even  consider  a  permanent  pas- 
ture. They  figured  that  land  seeded  to  grass  crops 
for  two  or  three  years  should  be  plowed  up  and 
planted  to  corn.  They  thought  that  blue  grass 
turf,  or,  in  fact,  turf  of  any  of  our  grass  crops,  after 
the  third  or  fourth  year  became  sodbound,  as  they 
called  it;  that  it  must  be  torn  up  and  plowed  up. 
As  a  consequence  the  very  few  pieces  of  permanent 
pasture  in  existence  were  rather  unsatisfactory, 
because  of  the  fact  that  they  were  so  new.  Of  late 
years,  however,  permanent  pastures  are  being  es- 
tablished on  all  the  big  farms  in  the  country,  and 
they  are  exceedingly  satisfactory.  Blue  grass  pas- 
tures 25  years  old  on  a  central  Illinois  farm  will 
return  more  per  acre  than  in  any  other  crop.  Al- 
most any  farmer  can  devote  15  to  20  acres  to  a 
permanent  blue  grass  pasture.  It  should  be  near 
the  house  and  barn  and  it  should  be  used  almost 
exclusively  for  a  night  pasture  for  horses  during 
the  working  season,  a  pasture  for  milch  cows  and 
probably  a  few  sheep.  Twenty  acres  will  take  care 
of  all  the  work  and  milk  animals  on  a  i6o-acre  farm 
and  leave  sufficient  growth  in  the  autumn  to  pro- 
vide winter  grazing  during  the  mild  days.  This 
pasture  will  start  ten  days  to  two  weeks  earlier  in 
the  spring  than  the  ordinary  pasture,  so  that  the 
grazing  period  is  very  greatly  extended,  the  supply 
of  nutritious  forage  very  large  and  the  profit  from 
permanent  pasture  great,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
satisfaction  of  having  a  splendid  piece  of  turf  ad- 
jacent to  the  farm  buildings. 

MANURING  PASTURES 

Permanent  pastures  on  the  rich  soils  of  the 
United  States  will  not  require  much  additional 
manuring.  The  droppings  from  the  animals  pas- 


PASTURES   FOR   GRAZING  FARM   ANIMALS          239 

tured  will  add  to  the  fertility,  but  it  will  do  no 
harm  to  spread  stable  manure  frequently  over  spots 
that  do  not  appear  to  be  doing  well.  This  spread- 
ing can  be  done  during  the  period  of  the  year  when 
crops  occupy  the  rest  of  the  farm  and  it  is  desir- 
able to  have  a  place  to  spread  the  fresh  manure. 
A  little  attention  here  and  additional  attention  to 


Jf*5F 
RUN  FOR  SMALL  PIGS 

prevent  the  growth  of  weeds  in  a  permanent  pas- 
ture will  soon  result  in  a  solid  mat  of  blue  grass 
that  will  grow  better  and  better  with  each  succeed- 
ing year. 

Of  course,  all  sections  of  the  United  States  can- 
not grow  blue  grass.  The  semi-arid  regions  of  the 
Northwest  will  have  to  depend  upon  brome  grass 
and  alfalfa  and  a  few  other  forage  plants  for  their 
pasture.  Brome  grass  is  proving  a  splendid  pas- 
ture grass,  even  in  the  humid  areas.  It  forms  a 
compact  sod,  supplies  a  large  amount  of  forage  and 
will  thrive  under  what  are  ordinarily  considered 
adverse  conditions.  This  grass  should  not  be 
neglected  in  the  regions  above  mentioned. 

In  order  to  start  a  permanent  pasture,  the  first 
thing  to  do  is  to  clean  up  the  ground  designed  for 
this  purpose.  If  it  is  an  old  pasture,  pretty  thor- 
oughly manure  the  land  by  top  dressing  and  apply 
the  seeding  of  blue  grass,  or  any  other  mixture 
that  is  desired.  On  uplands  or  dry  hillsides,  a  mix- 


24O  PROFITABLE   STOCK  RAISING 

ture  of  seed  consisting  of  timothy  4  pounds,  orchard 
grass  3  pounds,  meadow  fescue  4  pounds,  hard 
fescue  3  pounds,  Kentucky  blue  grass  4  pounds, 
white  clover  4  pounds,  red  clover  4  pounds,  has 
been  used  with  satisfaction  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  United  States.  On  moist  soils  4  pounds  of  red 
top  may  take  the  place  of  the  hard  fescue.  In  the 
middle  West  and  the  far  West  these  mixtures  are 
not  as  popular.  More  dependence  is  put  on  clovers, 
alfalfa,  timothy  and  brome  grass.  In  the  East 
also  it  is  customary  to  apply  some  commercial  fer- 
tilizers, from  200  to  400  pounds  of  a  mixture  com- 
posed of  50  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda,  150  pounds  of 
tankage,  700  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  100 
pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  being  quite  satisfactory. 

During  the  first  season  the  land  should  not  be 
pastured.  The  following  spring,  after  the  grass 
has  started  nicely,  additional  commercial  fertilizers 
may  be  applied,  or  spots  that  do  not  appear  per- 
fectly thrifty  may  be  treated  with  a  light  top  dress- 
ing of  stable  manure.  Grass  will  soon  take  posses- 
sion of  the  ground,  and  will  be  ready  for  stock. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  it  never  pays  to 
overstock  any  pasture,  particularly  one  that  is  just 
getting  started.  Let  the  animals  run  on  it  occa- 
sionally, but  do  not  let  them  graze  too  closely. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  in  the  South  Ber- 
muda grass  is  especially  adapted  to  conditions  ex- 
isting there.  This  takes  the  place  of  blue  grass  of 
the  middle  states  and  brome  grass  of  the  North- 
west. 

STARTING    NEW    PASTURES 

Where  pastures  are  to  be  started  on  cultivated 
lands,  several  years  are  required  to  secure  one  that 


PASTURES   FOR   GRAZING   FARM    ANIMALS  24! 

is  satisfactory.  Grass  seed  is  usually  applied  to 
the  ground  in  the  fall,  with  wheat,  or,  if  clover  is  to 
be  added,  the  timothy,  red  top,  etc.,  is  seeded  in 
the  fall  and  clover  applied  in  the  spring.  The  first 
year  nothing  is  obtained  from  the  field  except  a 
crop  of  wheat.  In  the  fall  the  land  has  to  be  mowed, 
to  keep  down  the  weeds.  If  the  stand  is  good,  the 
new  pasture  may  be  grazed  very  lightly  the  first 
fall,  but  stock  should  be  kept  off  during  the 
winter.  The  next  season  the  grass  ought  to  be 
fairly  well  established  and  capable  of  supporting 
a  pretty  fair  number  of  farm  animals.  During  this 
second  season  care  must  be  taken  to  take  off  the 
stock  at  the  first  appearance  of  overpasturing. 
Then,  too,  if  weeds  of  any  kind  appear,  they  must 
be  mowed  and  disposed  of  before  the  seed  ap- 
pears. By  the  end  of  the  third  or  fourth  year  a 
start  toward  a  permanent  pasture  is  well  under 
way. 

Another  practice  is  to  sow  the  grass  seed  alone 
without  a  nurse  crop.  The  crop  of  fall  grain  is 
practically  last,  but,  in  many  cases,  particularly 
where  there  is  apt  to  be  a  shortage  of  moisture,  it 
is  better  to  seed  alone.  The  same  precautions 
noted  concerning  weeds  and  overpasturing  must 
be  observed  in  this  case.  If  the  ground  to  be  de- 
voted to  pasture  has  a  very  compact  and  stubborn 
subsoil,  it  ought  to  be  subsoil  plowed  before  it  is 
seeded  to  grass.  The  cost  of  this  extra  labor  will 
be  more  than  made  up  by  the  increased  thrift  of 
the  pasture  crop. 

Prof.  W.  J.  Spillman  states  that  there  are  three 
great  pasture  grasses  in  the  United  States — brome 
grass  for  the  Northwest,  blue  grass  for  all  the  cen- 
tral area  and  Bermuda  grass  for  the  South.  To  this 
must,  of  course,  be  added  alfalfa,  which,  although 


242  PROFITABLE    STOCK    RAISING 

primarily  a  forage  plant,  will,  after  being  well  es- 
tablished, furnish  excellent  pasturage,  if  treated 
right.  Professor  Spillman  also  believes  that  while 
the  seeding  of  mixtures  such  as  are  used  in  the  old 
country  have  not  been  very  popular  in  the  United 
States,  the  practice  ought  not  to  be  abandoned 
until  a  thorough  tryout  is  given.  Possibly  some 
successful  mixture  will  be  found.  If  it  is,  it  will 
mean  a  whole  lot  to  the  live  stock  industry  of  the 
country. 

The  seeding  of  timothy  and  clover  together  seems 
to  be  one  of  the  popular  forms  of  starting  a  pas- 
ture in  this  country,  to  which  other  grasses  ought 
to  be  added,  particularly  blue  grass.  In  seeding 
grasses  it  must  be  remembered  that,  other  things 
being  equal,  rich  land  requires  more  seed  than  poor 
land  and  wet  land  more  than  dry.  A  well-prepared 
seedbed  requires  less  seed  than  one  poorly  pre- 
pared. A  single  pound  of  timothy  seed  to  the  acre, 
if  every  seed  produced  a  thrifty  plant,  would  pro- 
duce 27  pounds  on  every  square  foot. 

Mrs.  Meredith,  on  her  Indiana  farm,  devoted  to 
the  raising  of  pure-bred  Shorthorns,  is  a  very  firm 
believer  in  a  permanent  pasture.  She  contends 
that  it  not  only  enables  her  to  keep  more  live  stock 
but  it  gives  her  a  larger  proportion  of  feed  than 
most  people  think  can  be  secured  from  pasture 
land.  Further  than  this,  the  fact  that  farm  animals 
become  accustomed  to  grazing  in  certain  fields  and 
get  used  to  a  permanent  pasture  must  be  given  con- 
sideration. 

While  permanent  pastures  are  highly  desirable, 
temporary  pastures  often  are  a  great  help.  These 
may  be  made  in  the  North  in  summer  by  sowing 
winter  cereals  in  the  spring.  A  true  winter  cereal, 
if  seeded  in  the  spring,  will  not  head  out  that  year, 


PASTURES   FOR   GRAZING   FARM   ANIMALS  243 

but  will  produce  a  vast  growth  of  leaves,  which 
stock  eat  with  a  relish.  These  temporary  pastures 
may  also  be  grazed  the  following  winter  and  some- 
times they  produce  a  crop  the  next  spring.  The 
difficulty  unsurmounted  in  this  temporary  pasture 
proposition  is  that  there  is  frequently  a  temptation 
to  keep  the  stock  on  when  the  ground  is  too  wet, 
thus  seriously  injuring  the  mechanical  condition  of 
the  soil. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

Finishing  Stock  for  Market 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  feeding  of  live 
stock  is  a  difficult  and  complex  art  on  account  of 
the  great  number  of  influencing  factors.  These 
factors  do  not  all  pertain  to  the  composition  and 
combination  of  feeds  which  will  produce  the 
greatest  absolute  results  in  whatever  line  of  feed- 
ing is  pursued,  but  they  relate  in  still  greater  meas- 
ure to  the  relative  profits  to  be  secured  from  dif- 
ferent feeding  practices.  A  feeding  ration  which 
is  well  adapted  to  the  needs  of  certain  conditions, 
is  not  necessarily  the  best  under  all  conditions. 
Because  a  certain  system  of  feeding  will  produce 
given  known  results  with  a  certain  class  of  stock 
is  not  in  itself  evidence  that  the  most  profitable  re- 
turns will  be  secured  from  it.  The  value  of  feed 
and  the  market  price  of  finished  live  stock  enter 
into  the  question  and  form  intricate  problems  which 
require  for  their  solution  the  best  judgment  that 
education  and  experience  can  furnish.  What  will 
prove  profitable  feeding  practice  for  one  season, 
with  a  stated  value  for  feeds  and  a  corresponding 
price  for  feeding  animals,  will  not  necessarily  prove 
profitable  the  next  season  when  both  the  raw  ma- 
terial and  the  finished  product  may  have  far  dif- 
ferent relative  values.  Wide  experience  and  an 
intelligent  interest  in  market  conditions  and  in 
crop  production  will  go  a  long  way  toward  pro- 
moting the  formation  of  an  intelligent  opinion  on 
questions  of  values.  Yet  instances  are  numerous 
in  the  experience  of  almost  every  feeder  when 

244 


FINISHING   STOCK   FOR   MARKET  245 

the  opinion  of  those  best  informed  upon  feed  and 
live  stock  values  has  proved  faulty  by  the  time  the 
stock  was  fitted  for  market. 

The  finishing  of  live  stock  on  a  basis  profitable 
to  the  feeder  is  an  industry  that  is  carried  on  under 
continually  changing1  conditions,  and  requires  a 
keenness  and  alertness  on  the  part  of  those  who 
engage  in  it  fully  as  great  as  that  required  in  any 
business  or  profession.  A  mistake  in  judgment 
when  purchasing  steers  for  fattening,  for  instance, 
may  result  in  a  loss  on  the  year's  operations  large 
enough  to  wipe  out  the  profits  of  one  or  more  pre- 
ceding years.  Calculations  based  upon  the  hypoth- 
esis that  corn  will  be  worth  30  cents  per  bushel  are 
entirely  upset  should  market  conditions  force  the 
price  to  50  cents.  It  is  a  question  of  grave  moment 
whether  to  market  half-finished  cattle  when  the 
price  is  high,  or  whether  to  continue  feeding  them 
on  expensive  feeds  until  finished  and  take  a  chance 
of  finding  a  lower  market.  These,  and  numberless 
other  considerations,  enter  so  largely  into  the  ques- 
tion of  expediency  in  live  stock  feeding  that  the 
making  of  definite,  set  rules  for  the  guidance  of  the 
farmer  is  an  utter  impossibility.  The  numberless 
details  of  market  conditions  and  demands,  of  feed 
values  and  live  stock  values,  of  the  thousands  of 
little  things  that  enter  into  the  most  successful 
type  of  feeding,  can  be  gained  only  by  experience 
and  by  a  large  degree  of  intelligence  and  observa- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  feeder.  While  each  may 
be  a  small  thing  in  itself,  taken  collectively  they 
frequently  denote  the  difference  between  success 
and  failure  in  the  feeding  operations  of  the  farm 
for  any  term  of  years.  There  is  scarcely  a  feeder 
of  extended  experience  anywhere  in  the  country 
\vho  has  not,  in  some  particular  season,  lost  money 


246  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

on  his  operations,  but  there  are  thousands  who 
have  procured  good  profits  if  the  operations  for  any 
definite  term  of  years  be  considered. 

FEEDING   PERIODS 

Fattening  stock  for  the  market  frequently  de- 
mands different  practice  for  different  portions  of  the 
feeding  period.  Feeding  management  which  will 
give  the  best  results  at  the  beginning  of  a  fatten- 
ing period  will  seldom  or  never  be  the  best  during 
the  finishing  period.  Cattle  which  are  placed  in 
a  feed  lot  in  a  thin  condition  of  flesh  on  account 
of  insufficient  feeding  cannot  be  handled  in  the 
same  manner  as  thrifty,  well-conditioned  stock. 
Such  animals  as  these  can  be  fed  during  the  first  few 
weeks  upon  nourishing  and  strength-giving  feeds, 
largely  of  a  protein  nature,  which  will  build  up  the 
general  physical  condition  of  the  animal,  enrich  the 
blood,  and  induce  a  thrifty,  growing  condition. 
Then  gradually  change  the  feed  to  one  of  a  more 
carbonaceous  nature,  so  that  fat  will  be  formed  and 
weight  gained  while  still  maintaining  the  strong 
muscular  frame  produced  by  the  previous  feeding. 
The  management  of  growing  animals  is,  as  a  rule, 
much  better  understood  by  farmers  than  are  the  best 
methods  of  fattening,  and  this  refers  especially  to 
the  finishing  period  of  the  fattening  process. 

The  vital  question  for  successful  marketing  is, 
when  is  the  proper  time  or  the  proper  stage  of  de- 
velopment to  market  an  animal  to  the  greatest 
advantage?  The  answer  is,  of  course,  the  time 
when  it  will  make  the  most  profit.  This,  as  has 
already  been  pointed  out,  is  a  very  difficult  matter 
to  decide.  A  visit  to  the  live  stock  markets  any 
day  in  the  year  will  reveal  large  numbers  of  animals 


FINISHING  STOCK   FOR   MARKET  247 

offered  for  sale  in  a  partly  finished  condition.  This 
can  have  but  one  meaning,  namely,  that  feeders  of 
experience  find  that  under  some  conditions  it  is 
more  profitable  to  market  stock  at  this  stage  than 
to  continue  feeding  for  30  or  60  days  longer  in 
order  to  secure  a  high  finish.  It  is  always  true  that 
well-finished  animals  sell  for  higher  prices  than 
those  not  well  finished.  It  is  not  necessarily  al- 
ways true  that  the  highly  finished  class  returns  the 
greatest  profit  to  the  man  who  fed  it  on  account  of 
the  difference  in  the  cost  of  production.  A  lot  of 
expensive  feed  is  given  to  put  a  high  finish  on  the 
high-priced  animals,  and  it  might  easily  be  true 
that  the  cost  of  this  feed  more  than  offsets  the  dif- 
ference in  price.  However,  it  is  always  desirable 
to  feed  cattle  or  any  other  class  of  meat-produc- 
ing animals  until  they  have  a  high  finish,  or 
"  bloom,"  under  all  conditions  where  it  can  be  done 
at  a  profit.  These  conditions  are  usually  found 
when  there  is  a  reasonable  margin  between  the 
value  of  feed  and  the  market  value  of  the  finished 
animal. 

In  competitions  involving  the  relative  merits  of 
fat  animals,  very  frequently  the  deciding  factor  will 
be  that  one  animal  or  one  lot  has  a  higher  finish 
than  its  nearest  competitor.  This  finish  of  fattened 
animals  may  be  likened  to  quality  in  breeding 
animals.  It  is  something  that  is  hard  to  define, 
being  of  a  variable  nature.  Its  consideration  in- 
cludes not  only  the  absolute  amount  of  flesh  the 
animal  carries,  but  the  manner  of  its  distribution 
upon  the  carcass,  the  quality  and  the  consistency 
of  the  meat  and  the  external  appearance  of  the 
animal.  The  securing  of  exactly  the  right  degree 
of  finish,  of  being  able  to  distinguish  the  exact 
stage  when  the  animals  are  ripe  for  market  and  of 


248  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

offering  them  for  sale  without  any  deterioration 
from  this  condition,  is  one  of  the  fine  points  of 
successful  feeding  and  requires  the  widest  experi- 
ence and  keenest  discrimination.  There  are  a  large 
number  of  animals,  particularly  cattle,  which  it  is 
simply  a  physical  impossibility  to  feed  to  a  finished 
condition.  Such  animals  as  old  cows  and  types  of 
the  rough,  poorly  graded  stock  of  no  particular 
breeding,  wijl  never  acquire  a  high  finish  no  matter 
how  long  or  how  carefully  fed.  It  is  manifestly 
the  course  of  wisdom  to  dispose  of  such  animals  as 
these  as  soon  as  they  are  in  condition  to  be  market- 
able. 

INFLUENCE    OF   AGE 

Generally  speaking,  it  is  much  easier  to  feed 
young  animals  until  they  are  finished  than  is  the 
case  with  older  stock.  Cattle  under  two  years  of 
age  which  show  a  fair  degree  of  beef  type  can 
usually  be  finished  in  excellent  form,  and  this  is 
one  of  the  characteristics  which  give  to  baby  beef 
its  peculiar  value.  The  same  is  true  of  sheep  and 
hogs.  Lambs  fattened  and  marketed  under  a  year 
old  can  be  finished  in  almost  perfect  form,  and  hogs 
placed  upon  the  market  after  careful  feeding  and 
management  at  the  age  of  from  nine  to  ten  months, 
will  invariably  command  a  much  higher  price  per 
pound  than  older  animals  of  greater  weight.  Differ- 
ence in  value  comes  through  difference  in  quality. 

In  considering  the  cattle  feeding  practice  for  the 
different  parts  of  the  feeding  period,  we  may  state 
that  during  the  first  several  weeks  the  ration  should 
be  largely  nitrogenous  in  its  composition.  This 
tends  to  develop  the  frame  and  feeding  capacity  of 
the  animal  in  considerable  degree.  It  gets  the 
digestive  and  assimilative  system  into  a  condition 


FINISHING   STOCK   FOR   MARKET  249 

favorable  to  the  economical  use  of  fat-forming  feeds 
later  on.  This  does  not  mean  that  an  exclusively 
protein  ration  should  be  given,  but  simply  that  the 
ration  used  at  this  time  may  be  narrower  than  that 
given  later.  The  second  period  will  demand  feeds 
of  a  more  carbonaceous  nature.  A  liberal  propor- 
tion of  corn  may  be  given,  and  molasses  or  other 
sugar-bearing  food  may  be  added  if  such  rations  as 
this  are  available.  This  is  the  period  of  gross  fat 
production.  Not  only  should  fat  be  deposited  in 
the  regular  fat  cells  of  the  animal's  system,  but  also 
between  the  muscular  fibers  and  upon  the  surface 
of  the  muscular  frame.  The  ration  at  this  time  will 
be  quite  wide,  although  it  must  still  contain  a 
liberal  amount  of  protein. 

The  market  requirements  for  meat  of  the  best 
quality  demand  that  the  muscular  tissue  shall  be 
well  marbled;  that  is,  a  layer  of  fat  will  alternate 
with  a  layer  of  lean  meat.  Feeding  animals  to 
produce  meat  of  this  character  requires  scien- 
tific feeding,  and  is  an  art  in  itself,  which  is 
done  at  its  best  by  only  a  few  feeders.  An  animal 
which  may  appear  fat  and  smooth  to  the  eye  will 
not  necessarily  be  fattened  in  this  manner.  Nearly 
every  cattle  man  has  seen  steers  which  have  pre- 
sented an  excellent  general  appearance,  yet  the 
slaughter  tests  showed  fat  to  be  deposited  in  thick 
layers  as  a  covering  to  the  muscular  tissue,  with 
the  result  that  the  meat  was  of  a  very  inferior 
quality  and  disappointing  to  the  purchaser.  Animals 
of  this  character  can  be  distinguished  only  by  ex- 
perienced buyers  of  the  stockyards.  A  carload  of 
steers,  showing  external  fat  of  this  kind,  or  which 
have  been  fed  until  the  fat  is  deposited  in  such  a 
way  as  to  become  "  patchy,"  will  always  be  dis- 
criminated against  in  price. 


25O  PROFITABLE    STOCK   RAISING 

The  finishing  period  in  a  feed  lot  should  include 
special  attention  to  the  needs  of  each  individual 
animal.  By  this  time  the  individual  differences  in 
feeding  capacity  will  have  manifested  themselves, 
so  that  it  may  pay  to  divide  a  lot  into  two  or  more 
pens  and  feed  each  lot  according  to  the  apparent 
needs.  A  farmer  fattening  two  or  more  carloads 
of  cattle  may  by  this  means  be  able  to  dispose  of 
one  lot  several  weeks  in  advance  of  the  second. 
During  the  finishing  period  a  little  more  protein 
may  be  added  to  the  ration  than  during  the  middle 
part  of  the  feeding  season.  It  will  generally  pay 
to  add  linseed  meal  to  the  feed  at  this  time  in  rather 
liberal  proportions.  The  beneficial  effects  of  this 
feed  will  be  seen  in  several  ways.  One  effect  is 
that,  being  a  feed  extremely  rich  in  protein, 
it  will  tend  to  counteract  the  tendency  of  corn  to 
produce  excessive  fat  in  patches.  It  will  tend 
toward  the  formation  of  some  muscular  tissue  along 
with  the  fat  formation,  and  thus  add  quality  to  the 
meat.  Its  effect  upon  the  digestion  is  also  a  de- 
sirable feature.  In  the  advanced  stages  of  feeding, 
the  difficulty  is  to  maintain  suitable  gains  in  profit- 
able proportions  to  the  amount  of  feed  used.  By 
the  use  of  oil  cake  at  this  time,  the  animal's  diges- 
tion is  kept  in  better  condition,  and  gains  are  made 
for  a  longer  period  than  would  otherwise  be 
possible. 

In  feeding  cattle,  from  two  to  three  pounds  of 
linseed  meal  a  day  can  be  given  at  this  time,  pro- 
viding the  animals  are  gradually  accustomed  to  its 
use.  It  would,  of  course,  be  disastrous  to  introduce 
this  amount  of  oil  meal  into  the  ration  suddenly  if 
they  had  previously  been  receiving  none.  Another 
effect  of  feeds  of  this  character  which  will  be  quite 
noticeable  is  its  effect  upon  the  external  appearance 


FINISHING   STOCK   FOR   MARKET  2$I 

of  the  animal.  Oil  meal  tends  to  add  quality.  The 
animal  looks  smoother,  its  coat  becomes  fine  and 
glossy  and  the  hair  contains  much  oil.  Such  points 
as  these  tell  favorably  when  the  stockyards  are 
reached  and  when  the  animals  are  subjected  to  the 
inspection  of  a  critical  buyer.  In  hog  feeding, 
tankage  or  other  packing  house  by-products  may 
be  substituted  for  oil  meal  if  it  is  so  desired,  and 
the  results  will  be  practically  the  same,  and  equally 
favorable.  Hogs  respond  well  to  a  rich,  concen- 
trated feed  of  this  kind,  in  the  last  few  weeks  of 
their  fattening  period,  and  the  general  tone  and 
thrifty  condition  which  they  develop  will  easily  pay 
the  cost  of  the  feed.  Sheep  may  be  fed  oil  meal 
the  same  as  cattle  and  in  proportionate  amounts. 

PREPARING  FOR  SHIPMENT 

The  last  few  days  of  the  feeding  season  should  be 
devoted  to  preparing  the  animals  for  shipment.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  meat-producing  animals 
which  are  sold  in  the  packing  centers  are  shipped 
considerable  distances,  varying  from  100  to  several 
hundred  miles.  The  effect  of  this  long  journey  is 
invariably  a  shrinkage  in  weight.  How  to  reduce 
this  shrinkage  to  a  minimum  is  a  problem  which 
continues  to  engross  the  attention  of  feeders  and 
shippers.  In  general,  during  the  last  few  days  in 
the  feed  yard,  the  stock  should  be  given  drier  feed, 
if  possible,  than  that  to  which  they  have  been  ac- 
customed. If  silage  or  roots  are  being  fed,  this 
succulent  ration  should  be  cut  off  gradually  during 
the  last  ten  days,  and  none  should  be  given  for  three 
or  four  days  preceding  shipment.  Oil  meal  should 
be  used  very  sparingly  during  the  last  24  or  36 
hours  and  in  its  place  a  little  more  dry  corn 


252  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

or  barley  should  be  substituted.  If  alfalfa  or 
clover  is  being  fed,  the  supply  should  be  decreased 
and  more  timothy  or  corn  fodder  given.  This 
treatment  will  tend  somewhat  to  harden  the  flesh, 
and  heavy  shrinkage  will  be  less  likely  to  occur. 

The  preparing  of  animals  for  market  should 
include  not  only  developing  their  final  con- 
dition to  its  highest  points,  but  keen  dis- 
crimination in  grading  the  stock.  Uniformity  in 
car  lots  has  fully  as  much  to  do  with  the  price  re- 
ceived as  the  actual  condition  of  the  animals.  Every 
farmer  knows  that  if  he  takes  to  market  a  lot  of 
cattle  of  mixed  color  and  of  varying  sizes  he  will 
be  discriminated  against  on  this  account.  A  lot  of 
pure  black  cattle,  or  a  car  lot  in  which  every  in- 
dividual shows  the  white  face  of  the  Hereford 
breed,  or  the  pure  red  or  roan  color  of  the  Short- 
horn, will  invariably  command  a  better  price,  each 
separated  by  itself,  than  if  the  three  cars  were 
mingled  together  in  one  pen  and  offered  for  sale. 
By  far  the  greatest  number  of  championships  for 
carload  lots  of  fat  cattle  at  the  international  stock 
show  at  Chicago  has  been  won  by  black  Angus 
cattle.  It  is  finish  and  uniformity  which  has 
brought  this  result  in  nearly  every  instance. 
These  cattle  finish  remarkably  well,  better  than  the 
average  of  other  breeds,  and  they  are  bred  so  true 
to  type  that,  with  good  judgment  in  making 
the  original  selection,  a  carload  can  be  gotten 
together  in  which  each  individual  is  almost  exactly 
like  every  other  one.  This  quality  of  uniformity 
is  one  which  should  receive  more  attention  than  is 
ordinarily  given  it.  A  farmer  who  fattens  more 
than  one  car  of  cattle,  sheep  or  hogs  can  afford  to 
spend  a  lot  of  time  in  selecting  and  separating  his 
stock  at  shipping  time  so  that  each  lot  will  show  a 


FINISHING   STOCK   FOR   MARKET 


253 


high  degree  of  uniformity  as  to  size,  color  and  gen- 
eral condition.  A  car  of  hogs  in  which  the  in- 
dividuals vary  in  weight  but  little  will  always  re- 
ceive favorable  attention,  and  a  lot  of  lambs  which 
are  well  finished,  and  almost  all  alike,  will  command 
the  attention  of  buyers  when  a  poorly  selected  lot 
will  be  unsalable. 

It  should  not  be  expected,  no  matter  how  much 
care  or  how  much  skill  be  devoted  to  the  selection 
and  management  of  fattening  stock,  that  the  de- 
ficiencies due  to  early  management  can  be  overcome. 


REAR   VIEW   OF   DAIRY   BARN 

The  cattle,  sheep  or  hogs  which  top  the  market  are 
in  every  case  animals  which  have  received  good  care 
and  have  made  continuous  thrifty  growth  from  the 
moment  of  birth.  A  calf  which  is  stunted  in  its 
growth  during  the  first  year,  loses  quality.  This  qual- 
ity can  never  be  regained  even  under  the  most  care- 
ful and  judicious  feeding.  The  animal  may  become 
thrifty,  he  may  grow  fat  and  make  good  gains  upon 
the  feed  given,  but  he  will  never  have  the  quality 
that  a  similar  animal  kept  growing  from  birth  will 
show.  On  this  account  it  is  not  always  possible 
for  even  the  most  successful  feeders  to  attain  the 
highly  finished  condition  in  stock  which  has  been 


254  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

purchased  by  them  for  the  feeding  lot,  but  which 
was  not  under  their  control  previous  to  that  time. 

Prof.  Thomas  Shaw,  known  all  over  the  world 
as  an  authority  on  live  stock  and  feeding,  writes  as 
follows  in  Orange  Judd  Farmer  concerning  finish- 
ing cattle  for  market: 

"  The  method  of  fattening  cattle  with  swine  fol- 
lowing, is  well  nigh  universal  in  the  corn  belt, 
where  fattening  is  still  conducted.  Where  only 
timothy  hay  or  corn  fodder  is  fed  along  with  the 
grain,  and  the  grain  almost  or  entirely  corn,  there 
will  be  waste  of  the  food,  and  such  waste  cannot 
possibly  be  avoided.  The  ration  thus  fed  is  ill- 
balanced.  Experience  has  shown  that  with  such 
food  a  good  finish  can  be  made,  but  it  is  made  at 
quite  a  sacrifice  of  food.  The  food  is  too  rich  in 
carbohydrates  to  balance  the  protein  content,  hence 
a  certain  proportion  of  it  will  be  consumed  for 
which  there  is  no  return.  This,  when  food  was  very 
cheap,  as  was  the  case  years  ago,  was  not  of  much 
moment,  but  now  since  corn  has  trebled  in  value  it 
is  of  much  moment. 

"It  is  of  so  much  moment  that  it  should  lead  farm- 
ers so  to  farm  that  the  fodder  fed  will,  in  the  true 
sense,  be  the  complement  of  the  grain  fed  through 
bringing  it  into  balance.  Happy  are  the  farmer 
feeders  who  have  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  or  even 
mixed  hay,  of  which  a  part  is  clover,  to  feed  along 
with  the  corn.  When  such  hay  can  be  fed,  it 
would  seem  safe  to  say  that  from  25  to  33  per  cent 
less  feed  would  answer  the  purpose.  This  would 
mean  a  very  substantial  saving  in  these  days  of 
dear  grain.  The  feeders  are  also  fortunate  who 
can  feed  the  corn  in  the  form  of  silage.  This  in- 
sures a  larger  consumption  of  cheap  fodder  than 
would  otherwise  be  consumed.  If  clover  or  mixed 


FINISHING   STOCK   FOR   MARKET 

hay  could  be  fed  with  good  silage,  it  would  seem 
safe  to  say  that  from  March  I  to  June  I  not  more 
than  12  pounds  of  grain  per  day  would  be  called  for 
by  the  steer  weighing  1,200  to  1,400  pounds.  If, 
however,  the  steer  can  only  have  corn  and  corn 
stalks,  or  timothy  hay,  the  same  animal  would  need 
not  less  than  18  to  20  pounds  of  grain,  which  is 
very  expensive  feeding,  even  when  swine  follow. 
The  fattening  of  cattle  without  swine  following 
is  likely  to  grow  in  favor,  and  for  the  reason, 
chiefly,  that  it  can  be  done  with  a  smaller  amount  of 
dear  grain.  It  may  call  for  some  more  labor.  The 
grain  must  needs  be  ground.  When  it  is  ground, 
it  will  be  mixed  with  cut  fodder  or  silage,  or  at 
least  it  ought  to  be  so  mixed.  The  food  will  then 
be  thoroughly  digested.  Because  it  is,  a  minimum 
amount  of  meal  is  called  for.  The  saving  thus  ef- 
fected in  the  meal  should  more  than  offset  the  cost 
of  grinding.  By  no  other  method  of  feeding  can 
grain  be  fed  so  economically. 

"When  the  animals  are  being  fed  on  grains  other 
than  corn,  the  grain  must  of  necessity  be  ground. 
Barley,  rye,  oats  and  peas,  also  speltz,  must  be 
ground  to  give  the  best  results.  This  means  that 
swine  could  not  follow,  as  they  would  get  little  or 
nothing  that  would  benefit  them  in  the  droppings. 
Oats  are  too  dear  relatively  for  such  feeding.  At 
present  prices  no  grain  is  cheaper  than  corn,  hence, 
unless  the  farmer  has  enough  of  home-grown  grains 
it  may  pay  him  to  feed  corn  freely.  Where  he  does, 
two-thirds  of  the  grain  or  meal  may  be  corn.  The 
other  third  may  consist  of  bran  and  oilcake.  If, 
however,  he  has  rye,  barley  or  speltz,  or  two  or  all  of 
these,  they  may  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  corn. 
They  should,  of  course,  be  mixed  with  some  cut 
feed,  and  for  such  a  use  nothing  is  better  than 


256  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

silage,  nor  is  any  kind  of  roughage  so  cheap.  From 
20  to  40  pounds  may  be  fed  to  each  animal  daily, 
dependent  upon  the  other  feed,  and  the  feeder  is 
fortunate  who  can  feed  clover  or  alfalfa  with  the 
above. 

WHEN  CROWDING  WITH  FEED 

"The  three  months  now  being  considered  are  the 
three  finishing  months  of  feeding  the  animals  that 
are  to  be  disposed  of  June  I.  Such  animals  should 
not  be  finished  on  grass.  It  would  be  difficult  to 
maintain  the  gains  on  grass  at  so  early  a  period. 
Up  to  March  I  the  feeding  would  be,  in  a  sense, 
preliminary  to  the  final  finishing.  The  heaviest 
feeding  of  grain,  therefore,  would  take  place  dur- 
ing these  three  months.  During  these  months  of 
crowding  it  is  necessary  to  feed  at  least  a  limited 
amount  of  some  food  that  will  tend  to  keep  the 
digestion  in  tone.  When  the  digestion  gets  out  of 
tone,  the  fact  is  usually  disclosed  by  the  condition 
of  the  droppings.  The  odor  from  them  is  offensive 
in  proportion  as  the  digestion  is  overtaxed.  To 
prevent  this,  oilcake  or  wheat  bran  should  be  used. 
Oilcake  is  dear,  but  one  or  two  pounds  a  day  per 
animal  will  probably  more  than  pay.  During  these 
finishing  months,  the  animals  cannot  be  watched 
too  closely  lest  they  get  off  feed.  The  aim  should 
be  to  crowd  them  along,  but  not  to  overcrowd.  It 
is  the  steady  and  continuous  gains  that  should  be 
sought,  rather  than  rapid  gains  followed  by  slow- 
ing-up  periods.  As  the  weather  gets  warm  in  May, 
much  watchfulness  is  necessary  lest  the  animals 
shall  lose  appetite,  and,  in  consequence,  cease  to 
gain.  If  they  are  to  be  kept  longer  than  June  I 
they  should  be  finished  on  grass,  accompanied  by 
a  limited  amount  of  grain." 


FINISHING   STOCK   FOR   MARKET  257 

FATTENING   HORSES 

What  has  been  said  with  regard  to  meat-produc- 
ing animals  applies  with  equal  force  to  horses  being 
prepared  for  market.  The  purchase  of  horses  in 
poor  or  medium  condition  of  flesh,  and  feeding  them 
so  that  they  may  be  placed  upon  the  city  market  in 
good  condition,  is  an  industry  of  considerable  pro- 
portions in  various  sections  of  the  West.  The  same 
principles  that  apply  to  the  feeding  and  finishing  of 
meat  animals  can  be  safely  applied  to  horses. 
While  the  object  for  horse  feeding  is  not  simply 
for  increasing  the  weight  and  fat,  yet  it  is  true  that 
a  horse  offered  upon  the  market  while  not  in  a  very 
fair  condition  of  flesh  will  not  command  the  price 
that  the  fat  horses  would.  The  utility  of  the  horse 
lies  solely  in  his  ability  to  expend  muscular  energy, 
and  horse  feeding  must  necessarily  take  this  into 
consideration.  The  ration  should  be  one  which 
will  develop  muscular  energy,  but  it  should  contain 
enough  of  the  carbohydrate  contents  to  cover  the 
horse's  ribs  well  with  a  smooth  layer  of  fat,  and 
make  him  appear  in  a  healthy,  thrifty  condition. 
The  addition  of  oil  meal  or  similar  concentrates  to 
the  ration  will  be  more  noticeable  in  its  effects 
upon  the  external  appearance  of  the  horses  than  in 
feeding  cattle.  Nowhere  does  a  shiny,  silky  coat 
count  to  better  advantage  than  in  selling  horses. 
The  horses  with  smooth,  shiny,  oily  hair,  which  has 
been  well  groomed  and  cared  for,  will  invariably 
outsell  the  rough-coated  animal,  although  he  be  in 
himself  a  less  valuable  individual. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

Outlook  for  Live  Stock 

Stock  production  for  profit  in  the  United  States 
is  an  industry  which  is  yearly  requiring  an  increas- 
ing amount  of  skill  and  general  intelligence.  How 
to  maintain  breeding  animals  on  high-priced  land, 
how  to  rear  and  develop  the  young  stock  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  get  the  greatest  possible  growth 
in  the  least  time  and  with  the  smallest  expenditure 
of  feed,  how  to  fatten  and  finish  these  animals  for 
market,  and  how  to  market  them  in  the  most  ad- 
vantageous manner,  are  questions  which  require 
for  their  solution  ability  and  intelligence  of  no 
mean  order.  Each  phase  of  the  industry  would 
require  a  volume  in  itself  for  adequate  discussion. 
Upon  some  of  these  subjects  a  tremendous  amount 
of  accurate  and  valuable  information  is  available. 
Other  phases  so  change  from  year  to  year  and  from 
month  to  month  that  little  can  be  said  at  one  time 
which  could  be  applied  to  conditions  a  year  later. 
These  points  must  be  threshed  out  through  the  ex- 
perience and  keen  judgment  of  the  farmer  and 
feeder  himself. 

THE    BEEF    SITUATION 

The  question  of  the  future  beef  supply  of  the 
country  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  as  well  as 
the  most  important  questions  in  the  entire  field  of 
agricultural  economics.  For  more  than  50  years 
the  number  of  cattle  per  capita  in  the  United  States 
has  been  decreasing,  although  the  absolute  num- 


OUTLOOK   FOR   LIVE   STOCK  259 

her  of  cattle  in  the  country  has  more  than  doubled. 
The  pork  and  mutton  supply  of  the  country  is  more 
susceptible  than  the  beef  supply  to  the  factors  in- 
fluencing the  market,  due  to  the  relatively  short 
time  required  in  increasing  very  largely  the  total 
number  of  either  swine  or  sheep.  A  serious  short- 
age in  the  total  number  of  cattle  in  the  country, 
however,  is  a  matter  which  cannot  be  made  up  in 
a  few  months,  but  takes  years  to  replace.  The 
price  of  corn  is  so  inseparably  involved  with  the 
production  of  meat  that  it  may  be  considered  the 
greatest  factor  influencing  both  supplies  and  prices 
of  live  stock.  The  present  high  prices  of  all  the 
meat-producing  animals  are  due  in  a  large  degree 
to  two  influences:  First,  the  high  price  of  corn, 
and,  second,  the  shortage  in  breeding  stock,  espe- 
cially cattle  and  hogs,  throughout  the  entire  coun- 
try. 

It  is  the  supply  of  cattle,  however  which  presents 
the  most  interesting  phase  of  the  question  of  future 
meat  supply.  While  all  of  the  corn-growing  states 
of  the  middle  West  are  large  producers  and  finish- 
ers of  cattle,  the  relatively  cheap  production  of  the 
western  ranges  has  always  been  a  rather  uncertain 
element  in  influencing  the  market  conditions  and 
supplies  of  cattle. 

In  the  entire  trans-Missouri  country  the  cattle 
industry  in  every  section  was  a  forerunner  of  civil- 
ization. As  this  advanced  westward  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  United  States,  the  pioneer  cattle- 
man looked  to  the  Texas  ranges  for  the  supply  of 
breeding  stock.  In  this  way  the  historic  old  over- 
land cattle  trail  from  Texas  to  Dakota  was  started. 
Along  this  trail  for  a  number  of  years  great  herds 
of  Texas  cattle  were  moved  to  the  northern  ranges, 
and  distributed  throughout  Nebraska,  Dakota, 


260  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

Wyoming  and  Montana.  Heavy,  pure-bred  Short- 
horn and  Hereford  bulls  were  imported  from  the 
East  and  from  Europe  in  large  numbers,  and  used 
in  grading  up  these  herds,  using  the  Texas  stock 
as  the  original  foundation.  There  was  gradually 
evolved  a  very  fair  type  of  beef  animals  upon  the 
western  and  northwestern  ranges. 

The  days  of  the  great  Texas  cattle  trail  were  soon 
ended.  This  was  due  to  the  influx  of  farmers  who 
worked  their  way  across  the  West  in  Nebraska  and 
Kansas,  but  it  served  its  purpose,  and  established 
the  great  herds  of  the  western  cattle  barons,  whose 
halcyon  days  were  in  the  late  '7o's  and  up  to  about 
1890. 

HOW  CATTLE  WERE  SHIPPED 

The  building  of  the  western  railroads  furnished 
means  for  shipping  the  stock  East,  and  stimulated, 
to  a  great  extent,  the  population  of  all  the  range 
by  cattlemen.  Cattle  raising  on  the  magnificent 
scale  where  one  company  or  outfit  owned  anything 
up  to  half  a  million  head  of  cattle,  continued  until 
late  in  the  '8o's  and  early  'QO'S,  when  the  gradual 
western  advance  of  the  farmers,  with  its  conse- 
quent fencing  of  the  country,  caused  a  breaking  up 
of  the  old  bonanza  cattle  outfits.  This  movement 
reached  western  Nebraska  in  about  1889,  and  three 
years  following  saw  the  same  inroads  being  made 
in  the  great  herds  of  the  mountain  states.  In  those 
sections  which  did  not  attract  the  farmers,  the 
small  cattleman  began  to  obtain  a  foothold,  and 
to  operate  with  relatively  smaller  holdings  within 
the  formerly  acknowledged  range  of  the  cattle 
kings. 

The  range  sheep  industry  became  prominent 
about  this  time  also,  and  its  encroachment  upon 


OUTLOOK  FOR  LIVE  STOCK  26l 

the  cattle  territory  has  extended  to  this  day.  The 
settlement  of  the  region  of  the  great  plains  by 
farmers,  removed,  at  the  time  of  settlement,  prac- 
tically all  of  the  cattle  in  the  country.  The  home- 
steader found  it  necessary  to  devote  his  efforts,  for 
the  first  few  years,  to  the  production  of  strictly 
cash  crops,  and  had  neither  time  nor  resources  for 
raising  cattle,  even  on  a  small  scale.  The  big  cat- 
tleman found  it  necessary  to  round  up  and  ship  out 
of  the  country  his  entire  holdings,  so  that  for  the 
time  being  cattle  in  the  newly  settled  regions  were 
very  scarce.  Later,  this  condition  was  changed,  so 
that  today  these  farming  sections  probably  produce 
a  larger  number  of  cattle  than  were  ever  held  there 
under  range  conditions. 

In  the  extreme  western  states,  the  decade  from 
1880  to  1890  is  shown  by  the  census  reports  to  have 
witnessed  an  enormous  increase  in  the  holdings  of 
cattle.  The  next  step  in  range  development,  after 
the  advent  of  the  farmer  and  small  rancher  in  cer- 
tain sections,  was  the  leasing  and  acquiring  title 
in  various  ways,  to  such  grazing  land  as  was  pos- 
sible and  especially  to  water,  upon  which  success- 
ful grazing  depended.  With  a  legal  foothold  of  this 
kind,  rich  cattle  companies  then  proceeded  to  fence, 
not  only  their  own  leases  and  filings,  but  hundreds 
of  square  miles  of  the  public  domain.  Here,  for  a 
time,  cattle  raising  on  a  comparatively  large  scale 
flourished. 

ADVENT  OF  THE  HOMESTEADER 

The  homesteader  was  still  a  source  of  a  good 
deal  of  trouble  to  these  large  cattle  owners,  be- 
cause of  his  persistence  in  filing  on  claims  in- 
cluded in  these  pastures.  The  big  cattleman  has 
always  opposed  these  settlements  and  kept  them 


262  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

back  as  long  as  it  was  possible.  The  era  of  big 
pastures  on  public  land  came  to  an  end  a  number 
of  years  ago,  through  government  intervention. 
The  immediate  result  of  this  was  the  throwing  upon 
the  market  enormous  numbers  of  range  cattle.  It 
is,  no  doubt,  due  to  this  fact  more  than  to  any  other 
that  the  exportation  of  cattle  became  so  heavy  in 
the  years  between  1902  and  1906.  Besides  all  the 
cattle  of  these  big  companies  which  were  fit  for 
slaughter  being  placed  upon  the  market,  the  pas- 
tures and  feed  yard  of  the  Mississippi  valley  states 
were  filled  with  western  cattle  to  be  finished  for 
market  in  the  corn-growing  states.  Still  there  were 
large  areas  of  land  which  were  controlled  by  cattle 
raisers,  and  which  continue,  even  up  to  the  present, 
to  support  great  numbers  of  range  cattle.  The 
holdings  of  individual  ranchmen  were  very  largely 
reduced,  and  a  greater  number  of  small  cattle  grow- 
ers took  charge  of  the  industry. 

Irrigation  along  the  valleys  has,  meanwhile,  been 
developing,  so  that  great  amounts  of  winter  feed 
are  grown  and  the  more  progressive  of  these  ranch- 
men have  begun  feeding  in  the  winter,  thus  reducing 
their  loss  and  placing  the  business  upon  a  more 
stable  basis.  Title  to  range  land  has  been  acquired 
by  them  in  most  cases.  State  and  school  lands  have 
been  leased,  while  the  open  government  land  has 
been  used  as  summer  range  upon  the  rule  of  "First 
come  first  served." 

TEXAS  A  GREAT  CATTLE  STATE 

Texas  has  continued  to  be  the  greatest  cattle- 
producing  state.  The  holdings  there  have  ranged 
from  7,000,000  to  10,000,000  for  a  great  many  years. 
These  cattle  have  been  kept  principally  in  pastures 
for  a  long  time.  This  is  made  possible  by  the  fact 


OUTLOOK    FOR   LIVE   STOCK  263 

that  the  state  and  individuals  own  all  the  land. 
Conditions  of  range  and  climate  in  the  Northwest 
have  served  to  develop  a  system  of  shipping  south- 
ern cattle  in  the  spring  to  the  northern  ranges  for 
summer  pasture.  From  the  plains  they  are 
shipped,  in  autumn,  grass-fattened,  to  the  markets. 
The  last  five  years  have  witnessed  the  inauguration 
of  a  far-reaching  change  in  the  economic  conditions 
of  both  the  far  West  and  the  southwestern  cattle 
country.  From  1900  up  to  1910,  there  has  been  no 
perceptible  change  in  the  visible  cattle  supply. 
This,  it  should  be  remembered,  is  in  the  face  of  a 
20  per  cent  increase  in  population.  Not  only  did 
the  supply  remain  stationary  for  eight  years,  but 
within  the  year  1909,  according  to  government 
figures,  the  total  beef  cattle  supply  decreased  by 
more  than  2,000,000  head.  Exportations  of  pack- 
ing-house products  and  live  cattle  have  fallen  off 
in  the  last  four  years  nearly  50  per  cent.  These 
figures,  together  with  the  transitional  and  indefinite 
state  of  the  cattle  business  in  the  West,  have  caused 
widespread  interest  in  the  cattle  situation  and  its 
future  prospects.  This  shortage  of  2,000,000  head 
would  be  hard  to  replace,  even  if  there  remained 
any  section  in  which  the  cattle-growing  industry 
were  capable  of  immediate  expansion.  The  change 
in  western  range  conditions  has  removed  any  pros- 
pect of  an  immediate  future  development  in  that 
section.  The  middle  states  are  raising  more  cattle 
than  ever  before,  but  we  can  look  to  no  sudden  in- 
crease here.  Further  than  this,  never  in  the  history 
of  the  government  reports  have  so  many  calves  been 
slaughtered  as  is  being  done  at  present.  Not  only 
are  we  decreasing  our  supply  of  grown  cattle,  but 
we  are  drawing  to  a  dangerous  extent  upon  our 
future  supply  by  this  slaughter  of  calves. 


264  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

RUSHING  CATTLE  TO  MARKET 

Recently  the  great  receiving  markets  of  Chicago, 
kansasCity  and  Omaha  have  been  overcrowded  with 
[cattle  offered  for  slaughter  in  an  immature  and  un- 
[finished  condition.  A  consideration  of  the  immedi- 
'aterreasons  for  these  conditions  is  of  particular  in- 
terest. ,The  large  number  of  western  cattle  offered 
^arks  the  final  closing  out  of  nearly  every  big  out- 
fit in  the  Northwest.  The  smaller  ranchers,  who 
have  made  establishments  along  creeks  and  rivers, 
where  they  are  able  to  irrigate  and  raise  winter 
feed,  are  keeping  their  stock,  and  will  do  so  in- 
definitely. But  the  cattle  growers  whose  holdings 
range  from  2,000  head  up  have  been  shipping  out 
the  remains  of  their  herds. 

Just  the  influences  which  have  caused  the  large 
rancher  to  close  out  his  holdings  have  been  roughly 
outlined  already.  Two  additional  factors  for  cur- 
tailing the  extent  of  cattle  ranges  have  entered  dur- 
ing the  last  five  years.  One  of  these  is  the  immense 
profits  which  have  been  realized  from  sheep  in  the 
West.  The  steady  increase  in  the  number  of  range 
flocks  has  prevailed  for  the  last  15  years,  in  spite 
of  the  most  strenuous  efforts  of  the  cattlemen  to 
keep  them  out  of  cattle-grazing  territory.  These 
two  classes  of  animals  are  not  good  neighbors  on 
the  range,  since  the  sheep  are  able  to  crop  the  grass 
much  more  closely  than  cattle.  This  makes  it  im- 
possible for  cattle  to  live  on  range  on  which  sheep 
have  been  pastured.  Hundreds  of  cattle  growers, 
some  who  were  in  the  business  on  a  small  scale, 
and  some  of  the  large  ones,  have  accepted  the  in- 
evitable, closed  out  their  cattle  holdings,  and  bought 
sheep  instead. 

For  30  years  and  more,  both  cattlemen,  sheep- 


OUTLOOK   FOR   LIVE   STOCK  265 

men  and  old  settlers,  in  general,  have  declared  that 
the  great  stretches  of  plains  which  constitute  the 
eastern  half  of  the  great  state  of  Montana,  that  part 
of  the  Dakotas  west  of  the  Missouri  river  and  the 
rolling  prairies  of  eastern  Wyoming  and  Colorado 
were  unfit  for  anything  but  stock  growing,  and 
could  never  be  used  for  any  other  purpose.  The 
last  five  years  have  witnessed  here  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  changes  in  the  history  of  western  de- 
velopment. Upon  the  plains  of  the  semi-arid  belt, 
the  dry  farmer  with  his  half  section  of  homestead 
has  invaded  this  territory  in  every  state  from  the 
panhandle  of  western  Texas  to  northern  Montana, 
and  throughout  hundreds  of  square  miles  has  liter- 
ally crowded  both  cattle  and  sheep  out  of  the  coun- 
try. 

Colorado  stockmen  have  recognized  the  changed 
conditions,  and  have  shown  a  disposition  to  adjust 
themselves  accordingly  by  the  admission  to  the 
cattle  and  horse  growers'  association  of  the  cattle 
and  horse  growers  of  the  small  ranches,  men  whose 
stock  is  kept  under  practically  farm  conditions. 
Hitherto,  this  class  has  not  been  admitted  to  mem- 
bership in  the  association.  Fred  Johnson  of  Colo- 
rado secretary  of  the  Colorado  association,  states 
that  "  practically  the  last  of  the  big  outfits  have 
gone  from  the  ranges  of  the  centennial  state."  He 
adds,  however,  "  that  there  were  some  large  steer 
outfits  left  far  back  from  the  railroad  in  the  north- 
western part  of  that  state,  but  that  the  steers  which 
hitherto  have  been  readily  purchased  in  the  South- 
west are  becoming  scarce  as  the  proverbial  hens' 
teeth."  The  same  is  true  of  the  great  ranges  of 
western  Texas.  This  land  has  been  found  too  valu- 
able to  remain  longer  in  the  raw  condition,  and 
supports  only  the  live  stock  which  can  be  grazed 


266  PROFITABLE  STOCK  RAISING 

there,  and  millions  of  acres  have  been  sold  to  set- 
tlers and  devoted  to  crop  production. 

These  are  the  influences  which  have  so  seriously 
reduced  the  cattle  supply,  and  which  will  undoubt- 
edly further  reduce  it  rather  than  bring  about  any 
immediate  increase.  Eventually,  the  dry-farming 
regions  will  raise  more  cattle  than  were  ever  pro- 
duced under  the  old  range  conditions,  but  this  will 
not  be  in  the  immediate  future.  It  is  entirely  likely 
that  several  years  hence  the  total  number  of  cattle 
in  the  country  will  be  greater  than  at  any  previous 
period.  By  this  time,  however,  the  population  of 
the  country  and  the  corresponding  demand  for  beef 
will  have  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  the  beef 
production  per  capita  will  never  be  able  to  catch  up. 

CHEAP  BEEF  FOREVER  GONE 

In  view  of  these  conditions,  it  is  hard  to  con- 
ceive just  how  or  why  we  should  ever  have  cheap 
beef  again.  The  number  of  animals  kept  on  the 
middle  West  farms  is  continuing  to  increase,  but 
this  increase  is  gradual,  and  by  no  means  equal  to 
the  rate  of  increase  in  population.  Cattle  growing, 
even  on  high-priced  land,-  will  probably  continue 
to  be  exceedingly  profitable.  The  ranchmen  who 
have  been  able  to  stay  in  the  business  in  the  West 
will  also  realize  good  profits  from  their  stock. 

It  is  likely  that  the  thousands  of  range  cattle 
which  will  always  be  produced  in  certain  parts  of 
the  range  country,  will,  in  time,  be  fed  and  fitted 
for  the  market  in  the  western  states,  instead  of 
being  sent  to  the  feed  yards  of  the  middle  West. 
The  growing  of  barley,  field  peas,  alfalfa  and  sim- 
ilar crops,  both  upon  irrigated  and  dry  farms,  is 
leading  cattlemen  to  realize  what  the  possibilities 


OUTLOOK   FOR   LIVE   STOCK  267 

are  for  finishing  stock.  A  considerable  number  of 
them  are  already  starting  in  the  business,  and  a 
better  class  of  cattle  are  being  raised  every  year. 
This  is.  due  to  the  introduction  of  pure  blood  con- 
tinually, ,and  due  also  to  the  increased  number  of 
ranchmen  who  feed  their  cattle,  especially  their 
yearling  calves,  during  the  winter  months,  instead 
ot  compelling  them  to  rustle  or  starve,  as  in  the 
old  range  days. 

If  a  shortage  of  cattle  were  the  only  deficiency 
the  United  States  is  facing,  we  might  hope  for  a 
heavy  increase  in  beef  production  within  the  next 
few  years,  but  the  situation  in  regard  to  wheat  is 
equally  acute.  An  increased  area  must  be  devoted 
to  wheat  growing  if  we  are  still  to  produce  the 
bread  supply  for  ourselves  and  the  increase  in  pop- 
ulation. We  now  raise  about  one-sixth  of  all  the 
cattle  in  the  world,  our  strongest  competitors  being 
Canada  and  Argentina.  Even  now  certain  far-see- 
ing American  packers  are  causing  investigations 
to  be  conducted  in  South  America  concerning  the 
feasibility  of  importing  chilled  beef  from  the  Ar- 
gentine. 

It  is  extremely  likely  that  the  relatively  near 
future  will  witness  importations  of  beef  into  this 
country  from  South  America.  Meanwhile,  the  cost 
of  home-grown  beef  will  increase  until  it  approx- 
imates the  value  of  the  imported  article.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  farmer  has 
not  been  getting  his  due  share  of  the  high  prices 
for  finished  cattle.  The  price  paid  by  the  packer 
to  the  grower,  in  other  words,  is  not  as  much  as  it 
should  be  when  the  high  price  of  corn  and  the  high 
retail  price  of  beef  are  considered.  This  does  not 
apply  with  equal  force  to  the  man  who  is  fortunate 
enough  to  own,  or  control,  cheap  grass  land.  His 


268.  PROFITABLE   STOCK   RAISING 

beef  will  cost  him  little,  if  any,  more  than  it  did  25 
years  ago,  while  the  high  price  of  cattle  will  give 
him  a  high  net  return.  The  present  is  the  time  to 
stay  in  the  cattle  business,  if  it  is  possible  to  do  so, 
and  not  the  time  to  quit,  even  to  enter  the  profit- 
able sheep  business. 

Live  stock  production,  especially  that  relating  to 
meat  animals,  is  now  at  a  transitional  stage  in  the 
United  States.  Old  conditions  are  rapidly  passing 
away.  Cheap  land  and  cheap  feed  we  have  no 
longer,  and  never  will  have  again.  The  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  square  miles  which  only  a  few 
years  ago  constituted  the  free  range  and  the  free 
grass  of  the  West  have  been  reduced  to  the  vanish- 
ing point,  and  their  ultimate  disappearance  is  only  a 
question  of  time.  The  days  of  cheap  live  stock 
production  by  indifferent  methods  have  gone.  The 
days  of  very  large  American  export  trade  in  meat 
have  gone  also.  The  domestic  consumption  so 
nearly  approximates  the  home  production  as  to 
leave  only  relatively  trifling  amounts  of  live  stock 
and  live  stock  products  for  export.  With  this 
condition  has  come  a  continually  increasing  popu- 
lation, which  will  tend  to  constantly  increase  the 
meat-producing  capacity  of  the  United  States.  If 
we  are  to  continue  as  a  nation  producing  its  own 
foodstuffs,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  vast  in- 
creases in  our  meat  production  in  the  relatively 
near  future.  Public  ranges  can  no  longer  be 
looked  to  to  supply  this  increase.  It  must  come 
from  the  high-priced  farms  of  the  Mississippi 
valley,  from  the  old  settled  portions  of  New  Eng- 
land, and  from  the  great  undeveloped  agricultural 
empire  of  the  South.  In  time,  the  far  West  may 
be  expected  to  produce  more  stock  than  it  does 
now,  but  little  of  this  supply  can  ever  again  be 


OUTLOOK   FOR   LIVE   STOCK 


diverted  to  the  eastern  centers  of  population  on 
account  of  the  greater  demand  for  meat  products 
on  the  part  of  the  West  itself.  This  is  illustrated 
forcibly  by  conditions  which  exist  at  this  writing. 
Only  a  few  years  ago  many  thousands  of  hay-fed 
cattle  from  the  ranches  of  Montana  were  annually 
marketed  in  Chicago  and  other  eastern  markets. 
At  present,  although  there  is  little,  if  any,  reduction 
in  the  number  of  these  animals  fed  in  Montana, 
the  East  gets  very  few  of  them.  Nearly  all  are 
shipped  across  the  mountains  to  supply  the  meat 
demands  of  the  Pacific  Northwest  and  Alaska.  This 
present  and  prospective  demand  for  animals  and  an- 
imal products  merits  the  attention  of  every  American 
farmer.  He  should  carefully  weigh  the  considerations 
both  for  and  against  live  stock  farming  before  he 
definitely  determines  to  abandon  it  in  favor  of 
grain  production.  He  should  become  very  keenly 
alive  to  the  advantages  of  stock  farming  and  to  the 
returns  which  it  is  possible  for  him  to  secure  from 
it.  As  an  average,  he  has  never  made  the  most 
of  his  opportunities  in  this  line,  but  conditions  are 
now  such  as  to  merit  greater  attention  to  details 
of  breeding  and  management  and  the  securing  of 
correspondingly  greater  returns  for  his  labor  and 
investment.  To  the  individual  farmer  the  methods 
of  profitable  live  stock  production  are  of  vital  im- 
portance, since  upon  their  solution  depends  his  own 
ability  to  remain  in  the  live  stock  business.  To  the 
American  farmer,  as  a  class,  the  live  stock  problem 
has  even  greater  significance,  because  upon  its  in- 
telligent solution  rests,  in  a  large  degree,  the  future 
agricultural  prosperity  of  the  country,  and  the  hope 
of  ultimately  placing  the  agriculture  of  this  coun- 
try on  a  permanent  and  stable  basis. 


INDEX 


Abandoned  land  made  productive    33 

Abandoned  southern  lands 20 

Agriculture,  principles   of   perma- 
nent       18 

in  western  Europe 20 

Eastern   agriculture,    failure   of 

one-crop  system  in 41-43 

re-adjustment  of 44 

place  of  legumes  in 45 

English  agriculture,  features  of     29 
Southern   agriculture,    demands 

improved  live  stock 46 

artificial  fertilizer  used  in 47 

importance  of  dairying  to ....     53 

diversification  in 55 

Alfalfa,  effect  upon  soil 37 

value  of  for  horse  feeding 201 

pasture  for  sheep 172 

feeding  to  swine 182 

hay,  value  of  for  dairy  feed 128 

Baby  beef,  defined 214 

reasons  for  development  of .  .  214,  215 

effect  of  age  upon  gains 216,  217 

type  of  calves  suited  for 216 

sources  of  stock  for  feeding  ..217,  218 
adaptation  of    dairy  calves  for 

219,  220 

methods  of  feeding  for 219 

grain  mixtures  for  feeding 220 

forage  suitable  for 220 

pasture  for 220 

quality  and  finish  of 223 

weight  for  age 223 

time  for  marketing  of 224 

length  of  feeding  season  for 224 

Indiana  experience  in  feeding  225-227 

Beef  cattle,  approved  type  of 81 

conformation  and  type  of 81 

quality  in 82 

Beet  pulp,  value  of  for  sheep  feed- 
ing      168 

Breed,  principles  governing  selec- 
tion of 71-78 

Breeding,  object  of 89 

inbreeding 92,     93 

line  breeding,  desirability  of ....     92 

principles  of 73 

importance    of    pure-bred    sire 

89,  90,     94 
discussion  of  cross-breeding....     91 

cross-breeding,  risk  in 91 

results  of  cross-breeding 74 

when  crossing  is  profitable 74 

Breeding  stock,  how  to  select 73 

management  of  young 94,     95 

feeding  of  young 94-96 


Calves,  feed  of 222 

Cattle,  feeding  of 66,  67 

maintenance  rations  for 110 

corn  silage  for  fattening 113 

dual  purpose  type  of 121 

Cattle  industry,  growth  of 259,  260 

Colts,  feeding  of 199 

general  management  of 200 

Concentrates    Ill 

Continuous     grain    growing,     soil 

maintenance  for 24 

Co-operative  breeding  associations 

125,  126 

Co-operative  testing  systems 126 

Corn  fodder,  shredding  for  feeding  231 
Corn  silage,  results  of  use  at  Pur- 
due University 113 

Cotton  seed,  importance  of  in  stock 

feeding    49 

value  of  to  South 50 

Crop  rotation,  importance  of ...  22,  23 
Crop  yields,  decreased  by  continu- 
ous grain  growing 57,  58 

Dairy,  sources  of  loss  in 69 

Dairy  barns,  necessity  for 132 

sanitary  and  efficient  types  of  133,  134 

Dairy  cattle,  characteristics  of 82 

conformation   of 82 

quality  and  type  of 83 

increasing  efficiency  of 54 

methods  for  increasing  efficiency 

of 123 

more  and  better  ones  needed ...  122 
unprofitable  dairy  cows  must  be 

eliminated 124 

elimination  of  disease  in 132 

profitable  herd,  how  to  build  up  71 

Dairy  industry,  magnitude  of 116 

field  for  improvement  of. ...117,  118 
examples  of  milk  production  in  118 
revolutionized  by   modern  ma- 
chinery   118,  119 

profits  obtainable  in 138 

development  of  in  Denmark ....  117 

requires  intensive  agriculture.  .  .  117 

Illinois  experience 133-138 

Dairying,  average  production  per 

cow    54 

indirect  returns  from 141,  142 

importance  and  relation  of  to  soil 

maintenance 142-144 

types  of 119,  120 

Dairying  on  high-priced  land 70 

Deep  plowing  essential 36 

Diversification     of     northwestern 

agriculture   2 


271 


272 


INDEX 


Page 

Draft  horses,  desirable  character- 
istics of 79 

description  of  ideal 80 

Eastern  land,  proximity  to  market 

of 34 

Essentials  for  profitable  stock  pro- 
duction         3 

Exhausted  land  problem  in  China     19 
Farm  labor,  relation  of  live  stock 

farming  to 30 

Feed,  waste  of  in  Mississippi  valley  114 

Feeding,  object  of 105 

balanced  ration  in 106 

influence  of  individuality  in.  ...     99 

basic  principles  of 100 

properly  blended  rations  best.  . .    101 

nutritive  ratio  in 102 

nutritive  ratio,  wide  or  narrow  102 
importance  of  scientific  methods 

in 115 

periods  of 246 

forage  plants  suitable  for 106  , 

influence  of  age  upon 108,  248 

effect  of  unbalanced  rations  in .  .  109 
influence  of  one-sided  rations  in  249 
value  of  grains  and  forage  for.  .  115 

value  of  roots  for 112 

value  of  beet  pulp  for 112,  113 

methods  of,  in  dairying 127 

Feeding  rations  for  ewes  and  lambs  157 

Feeds,  general  classes  of 100 

nitrogenous,  character  of 100 

protein    100 

carbohydrates,  definition  of...  100 
non-nitrogenous,  nature  of....  100 

value  of  corn  plant 103 

chemical  analysis  of 103 

variation  of  to  meet  objects  in 

feeding 104,  105 

different  concentrates  in Ill 

succulent  characteristics  in 112 

grass  and  balanced  rations 112 

corn  silage  one  of  most  valuable  113 
combination  suitable  for  fatten- 
ing lambs 165,  166 

Finish,  market  requirements  of .  .  .   249 

Finishing,  discussion  of 254,  255 

Finishing  period,  feeding  practiced 

for   250 

Grass,  ideal  dairy  feed 130 

Hogging  off  crops,  practicability  of  183 

cost  of 184 

Horses,  feeding  of 200 

feeds  best  suited  for 200 

fattening  for  market 257 

value  of  in  United  States 189 

average  value  of 189 

number  raised  annually 189 

heavy  importations  of 190 

best  type  for  farm 190 

selection  of  breed 192 

selection  of  breeding  stock 193 

points  of  conformation 193 

examination  of  for  unsoundness  196 

requirements  for  draft 195 

Hot-house  lambs,  definition  of.  ...   229 
equipment  for  raising 229,  230 


Page 

H  ot-house  lambs,  breeding  for . . .  230 

shelter  for 232 

feeding  and  management  of 233 

marketing  of 234 

best  weight  for 235 

profits  derived  from 235,  236 

Humus,  source  of  supply 34 

increasing  the  supply  of 37 

function  of 23,  24 

Immigration  turning  eastward.  ...     33 

India,  soil  depletion  in 19,  25 

Jacks,  description  of  breeds 205 

types  and  characteristics  of  205,  206 

mammoth,  origin  of 207 

Jethro  Tull,  teachings  of 21 

Lambs,     care     and     management 

of    155,  156 

feeding  for  market 164,  165 

Legumes,  place  in  feeding  rations . .    106 

give  increasing  crop  yields 38 

grow  luxuriantly  in  South 45 

importance  of  to  east 35 

Live  stock,  economic  importance  of       4 

increasing  the  supply  of 5 

prices  of 5,  6 

numbers  and  distribution 7,8,  9 

number  per  capita 15 

improvement   of 16 

principles  of  management  of.  .16,  17 

on  high-priced  land 61 

field  for 17 

adaptation   to   southern    condi- 
tions         48 

not  all  profitable 68 

sources  of  information  concern- 
ing       68 

elimination  of  unprofitable 69 

selection  of 79 

quality  in 79 

value  of  pure  bred 97,  98 

marketing  of 246 

preparing  for  shipment 251,  252 

Live  stock  farming  vs.  grain  farm- 
ing       28 

Live  stock  situation,  discussion  of  258 
Manure,  value  of  in  soil  mainte- 
nance     59,  60 

care   of 37 

Marketing,  value  of  uniformity  in  253 
Market  milk,  production  of.  .  /120,  121 
must  be  produced  under  sanitary 

conditions 131 

figures  of  high  production  of ....    137 
Meat  animals,  feeding  and  manage- 
ment of 96 

Meat  production,  transitional  stage 

of   268,  269 

Milk,  importance  of  recording  pro- 
duction of 123 

utility  of  in  swine  growing 180 

Mules,  large  southern  importations 

of SO 

strong  market  demand  for 203 

range  of  values  of 204 

origin  of  in  America 204 

type  demanded  by  present  mar- 
ket   207 


INDEX 


273 


Page 
Mules,  weight    and   conformation 

desirable 208 

characteristics   inherited 208 

care  and  management  of 209 

feeding  of 210    211 

breaking  to  work 211-213 

Nitrogen,    supply     increased     by 

legumes 37 

amount  removed  by  crop 59 

amount  contained  in  manure  59,  60 
Oil  meal,  place  in  feeding  rations 

for  horses 202 

during  finishing  period 251 

Pastures,    acreage    devoted   to  in 

United   States 237 

importance  of 237 

commercial   fertilizing   mixtures 

for   240 

returns  from  permanent 238 

value  of  blue  grass 238 

fertilization  of 238,  239 

Brome  grass 239 

preparing    land    for    permanent 

Sstures    239 
e  seed  mixtures  for 240 

Bermuda  grass  for 240 

maintenance  of 241 

timothy  and  clover  for 242 

relative  value  of  different  grasses 

for   181 

value  of  rye  for 181 

value  of  rape  for 181,  182 

alfalfa,  for  sheep 172 

crop  desirable  for  swine 178 

fall  crops  for  sheep 172 

feed  value  of 13,  14 

Phosphorus,  amount  removed  by 

crop 59 

amount  contained  in  manure  59,  60 
Potash,  amount  removed  by  crop     59 
amount  contained  in  manure  59,  60 
Protein,    proportion    required    for 

milk  production 129 

Quality  lost  is  never  regained 253 

Ranches,  large,  causes  for  passing 

of    261-277 

Rape  feed,  value  of 181,  182 

Rotations,  suitable  for  stock  farm- 
ing     38,  39 

Importance  of  crop 22,  23 

Russia,  agricultural  poverty  of. ...     25 

Rye,  value  of  for  pasture 181 

Selling  crops  in  bulk  bad  practice     60 
Sheep,  history  of  in  America.  .  145,  148 
number  of  in  early  Spanish  terri- 
tories     146 

original     source     of     American 

stock    146-148 

dual  purpose  type  of 148 

distribution     and     number     in 

United  States 147,  148 

modern  type  desired 148,  149 

breeding  for  dual  purpose  type 

of      ........149,  150 

management         of         breeding 

stock 150,  151 

feeds  suitable  for 151 


Page 
Sheep ,  feeds  suitable  for  breeding 

animals 151-153 

value     of     roots     for     feeding 

sheep    152,  153 

winter  management  of 153,   154 

on  valuable  land 62,  169 

management  of  at  lambing  period  156 
feeding    rations    for    ewes    and 

lambs 157 

pasture  essential  for 158 

fall  feeding  of 159 

docking  and  shearing 159,   160 

shearing,     hand     and     machine 

methods 160,   161 

treatment  of  for  parasites ...  162,   163 

scabies  in 163 

dipping,  types  of  plant  suitable 

for    163 

treatment  for  internal  parasites  164 

tobacco    for 164 

fattening  for  market 167 

feeding  old  ewes 167 

economic  utility  of 168 

number  maintained  per  acre. ...    169 

future  of  in  United  States 170 

as  soil  improvers 169 

land  suitable  for 171 

management  of  ewes  for  winter 

lambs 231 

mutton  type  of 84 

conformation  of  mutton  type .  .  84,  85 
Sheep  husbandry,  importance  of .  .  63 
Shipment,  preparing  live  stock 

for 251,  252 

Silage,    essential    to    cheap    milk 

production    127 

value  of  in  dairying 139 

Single  crop  system  bad 28 

Soil,  maintenance  and  management     21 

depletion  in  south 48 

depletion      hastened      by      old 

methods    32 

depletion  cause  of  famine 18 

fertility,  determination  of 22 

nitrogen  and  phosphorus 23 

maintenance,  importance  of  live 

stock  to 24,  25 

measure  of  producing  capacity  of     35 
increasing  water  holding  capacity 

of 35 

injured  by  working  when  wet ...     36 

improved  by  alfalfa 37 

inoculation  of  for  alfalfa  or  clover     38 
enriching  by  means  of  live  stock     38 

mechanical  condition  of 39 

supplying  humus  in 39 

maintenance,  demands  more  live 

stock  27 

Soils,  amount  of  fertility  removed 

by  crops 59 

South  should  grow  its  own  work 

stock 51 

wonderful  land  for  legumes 52 

dairy  products  imported  into  52,  53 
Southern  cities,  milk  supply  of 

inadequate 53 


274 


INDEX 


Page 

Southern  com  crop,  reasons  for  low 

average  yield 49 

Southern  lands,  abandonment  of . .  20 

Stallions,  selection  of 194 

feeding  and  management  of.  ...  197 

Swine,  supply  of 64 

feeding  for  profit 65,  66 

cross-breeding  of 74 

types    of 86,  174 

points  of  conformation 86,  1 75 

weight  for  market 86 

effect  of  injudicious  feeding  upon  109 

importance  of  pasture  for 109 

maintenance  rations  for 1 10 

breeds   of 173 

characteristics  of  different  breeds  174 
desirable  points  of  breeding  ani- 
mals    175,  176 

defects  in  breeding  stock 176 

selection  for  fecundity 176 

care  of  breeding  animals 177 

forage  plants  for 178 


Page 

Swine,  pasture  crops  desirable  for  178 

succulent  feed  in  winter  for 178 

winter  of  spring  pigs 179 

management  of  fall  litters 179 

feeds  best  for  producing  growth  180 

value  of  forage  for 181 

alfalfa  for 182 

methods  of  pasturing 183 

concentrates  for  fattening .  . .  184,  185 

on  high-priced  land 186 

fluctuating  supply  of 186 

market  demands  as  to  type 187 

high  prices  of 187 

rapidity  of  increase 188 

Swine  growing,  possibilities  of  in 

the  south 51 

Tenant  farming,  tendency  of 12 

Texas  fever,  eradication  of  in  south  48 

Tillage,  importance  of 21,  36 

deep  plowing  essential 36 

Wool,  handling  and  packing 162 

importation  of  into  United  States  1 70 


